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THE 


ECLECTIC   MANUAL 


OP 


METHODS 


J^OJ?    THE  ASSISTANCE   OF   TEACHERS 


VAN  ANTWERP,  BRAGG  &  CO. 

CINCINNATI  NEW  YORK 


(  I      <       < 

,     ,     <     ' 


•  '  < 
i     « »      .     • «  <    <        '       <  . 


Copyright 

1885 

Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co. 


^iDUCAT'(ot^:!  OB^' 


ECLECTIC   PRESS ! 
VAN    ANTWERP,    BRAGG    &    CO. 


- 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction 


PAGE 


READING. 


Chapter        I. — Auxiliary  Studies 

II. — Methods  of  Teaching  . 
III.— McGuffey's  Primer 
IV.— McGuffey's  First  Reader 
V. — General  Remarks 
VI. — McGuffey's  Readers. —  Concluded 


II 

24 

32 

41 

57 
69 


SPELLING. 


Chapter    VII. — McGuffey's  Spelling-book 


85 


WRITING. 


Chapter  VIII. — Eclectic  System  of  Penmanship 


93 


ARITHMETIC. 


Chapter     IX. — First  Year 

X. — Second  Year  . 
*'  XI. — Arithmetic. —  Co7icluded 


105 

115 
131 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Chapter  XII. 
XIII. 


-The  Eclectic  Elementary  Geography     . 
-The  Eclectic  Complete  Geography 


145 
162 


IV  CONTENTS. 


GRAMMAR. 

PAGE 


Chapter      XIV. — Harvey's  Elementary  Grammar  and  Com- 
position          177 

"  XV. — Harvey's  Revised  Practical  Grammar        .       188 


HISTORY. 


Chapter    XVI. — The  Eclectic  History  of  the  United  States      207 
"  XVII. — The  Eclectic  History. — Appendix       .        .      227 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

Chapter  XVIII. — The  Eclectic  Physiology    ....      249 


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THE 


ECLECTIC   MANUAL. 


IN  TR  on  UCTION. 

THIS  Manual  is  the  outgrowth  of  numerous  requests 
from  young  and  inexperienced  teachers  of  country 
district  schools  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  United  States 
for  assistance  in  their  work.  While  it  is  therefore  ad- 
dressed particularly  to  this  class,  it  is  hoped  that  it  con- 
tains many  suggestions  which  will  prove  useful,  also,  to 
teachers  generally. 

During  the  past  few  years,  there  has  been  a  strenuous 
effort  made  in  many  states  to  evolve  some  degree  of 
symmetry  and  order  out  of  the  chaos  in  which  the  un- 
graded schools  have  heretofore  existed.  Superintendents 
have  held  meetings  and  discussed  methods  and  the 
proper  use  of  text-books  ;  they  have  also,  in  many  cases, 
issued  manuals  to  their  teachers,  setting  forth  the  results 
of  the  conferences,  and  making  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  future  conduct  of  the  schools.  These 
manuals,  although  frequently  differing  in  unessential 
details,   agree  in   recommending   a   definite   and   uniform 

(5) 


^',  THE  ECLECTIC  MANUAL. 


course  of  study,  and,   as  far  as  may  be   possible,    a  uni- 
formity of  text-books  in  classes. 

Wherever  these  suggestions  of  the  superintendents 
have  been  followed,  the  schools  without  exception  have 
been  improved  in  character.  But  many  difficulties  con- 
front the  inexperienced  teacher,  regarding  which  he 
receives  no  aid  from  the  superintendent's  manual.  Not 
the  least  of  these,  perhaps,  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  he 
does  not  understand  how  to  use  his  text-books  to  the 
best  advantage.  In  order  to  use  a  book  properly,  a 
teacher  must  know  what  the  aim  of  the  book  is ;  on 
what  plan  it  has  been  constructed,  and  in  conformity  with 
what  method  ;  how  far  its  text  is  merely  suggestive,  etc. 
As  the  Eclectic  Educational  Series  is  used  very  generally 
in  the  district  schools  throughout  the  country,  the  Pub- 
lishers feel  themselves  called  upon  to  aid  in  supplying 
such  information  in  rfegard  to  these  books  and  their 
use  as  will  assist  the  teacher  in  securing  the  best  pos- 
sible results.  With  this  object  in  view,  the  following 
books  of  the  Eclectic  Educational  Series  have  received 
full  and  careful  treatment :  McGuffey's  Revised  Eclectic 
Primer,  Readers,  and  Spelling-Book ;  the  New  Eclectic 
Penmanship;  Ray's  New  Primary,  Intellectual,  and  Prac- 
tical Arithmetics ;  the  New  Eclectic  Elementary  and 
Complete  Geographies ;  Harvey's  Revised  Elementary 
Grammar  and  Composition,  Harvey's  Revised  English 
Grammar ;  the  Eclectic  History  of  the  United  States ; 
the  Eclectic  Physiology  and   Hygiene. 


INTRODUCTION.  y 

The  several  books  mentioned  have  been  prepared  in 
conformity  with  those  modern  methods  of  teaching 
which  are  recognized  by  the  most  advanced  instructors 
as  the  best.  It  has  been  the  endeavor  to  show  in  this 
Manual  what  the  method  is  for  each  subject,  and  how  it 
should  be  applied.  Suggestions  as  to  details  have  been 
given  wherever  it  is  felt  they  will  be  of  service,  but  they 
must  be  viewed  in  the  proper  light,  as  mere  suggestions. 
For  example,  it  is  by  no  means  desired  to  convey  the 
impression  that  in  our  opinion  the  plan  suggested  for 
conducting  the  opening  lesson  in  McGuffey's  Revised 
Eclectic  First  Reader  is  the  only  proper  plan  for  conduct- 
ing that  lesson.  The  same  is  true  of  all  similar  sugges- 
tions :  it  is  not  intended  that  they  shall  be  followed 
servilely,  but  simply  be  accepted  as  hints.  Each  teacher 
must  necessarily  originate  his  own  plan  of  conducting  a 
lesson.  Originality  in  this  respect  is  indeed  a  necessary 
element  of  success ;  for  the  teacher  must  be  able  to 
recognize  the  particular  needs  of  his  own  school,  and 
must  adapt  his  teaching  to  those  demands.  No  amount 
of  suggestions  will  give  this  power,  nor  can  any  one 
teach  the  knack  of  imparting  information  to  others.  It 
is  a  well  known  fact  that  many  a  wise  man  is  a  very 
poor  teacher    owing  to  deficiency  in  this  respect. 

A  teacher's  success,  then,  depends  very  largely  upon 
natural  gifts,  but  it  also  depends  upon  a  thorough 
knowledge,  not  only  of  the  subjects  he  teaches,  but  also 
of   the   methods   and    books   that   he    uses.      With    this 


8  THE  ECLECTIC  MANUAL. 

knowledge  added  to  the  necessary  natural  gifts,  a 
teacher,  no  matter  how  inexperienced,  may  look  con- 
fidently for  good  results  from  his  teaching.  Without  it, 
even  the  most  experienced  teacher  can  not  attain  the 
best  results.  To  supply  this  necessary  information  in 
regard  to  the  books  of  the  Eclectic  Educational  Series  is 
the  aim  of  this  Manual,  and  it  is  issued  in  the  hope  that 
it  will  prove  of  valuable  assistance  to  all  teachers  who 
are  using  those  books  in  their  schools. 

The  Publishers  take  this  opportunity  of  expressing 
their  obligations  to  Superintendent  R.  W.  Stevenson, 
Hon.  Thomas  W.  Harvey,  Miss  M.  E.  Thalheimer,  Dr. 
Eli  F.  Brown,  and  J.  T.  Stewart  for  their  valuable  assist- 
ance in  the  preparation  of  this  Manual. 


READING 


I. 

AUXILIARY  STUDIES. 

THERE  are  certain  studies  intimately  connected  with 
reading  which  should  be  taught  in  connection  with 
it  from  the  first.  It  will  therefore  be  well  to  consider 
these  briefly,  and  their  relations  one  to  another,  as  well 
as  to  the  reading  lesson  itself,  before  taking  up  the 
details  of  the  reading  lesson  proper. 

The  four  important  auxiliary  studies  to  be  considered 
are :  Language  Lessons,  Writing,  Object  Lessons  and 
Composition,  and  Spelling. 

Language  Lessons. — When  the  child  first  comes  to 
school,  he  knows  how  to  talk.  He  learned  this  art  by 
associating  certain  spoken  words  with  certain  objects, 
attributes,  and  actions.  He  imitated  the  words  that  he 
heard,  and  thus  in  time  learned  to  speak.  If  he  has 
always  heard  correct  language,  his  own  language  will  for 
the  most  part  be  correct,  and  the  errors  he  makes 
through  inexperience  or  imperfect  reasoning  can  be 
easily  rectified.  But  the  case  is  different  where  the  child 
Jiears  the  same  grammatical  blunders  and  inelegant  ex- 
pressions day  after  day,  at  home  or  on  the  playground, 
and  naturally  imitates  them.  These  errors  can  be  over- 
come only  by  patient  persistence  on  the  part  of  the 
child's  instructors.  A  child  of  well  educated  and  refined 
parents,  and  one  whose  associates  are  cultivated  persons,: 
will  probably  have  but  little  use  for  a  grammar  at  any 

time;  but  such  children  are  the  rare  exceptions,  -  and  the 

(11) 


1 2  READING. 

teacher  must  prepare  to  battle  against  great  odds.  He 
has  only  the  short  time  that  the  child  is  in  school  to 
weigh  against  the  many  hours  spent  by  that  child  under 
adverse  influences,  therefore  there  is  all  the  more  reason 
why  work  in  this  direction  should  receive  the  most 
watchful  attention.  Never  allow  a  grammatical  blunder 
to  pass  uncorrected  either  in  a  child's  speech  or  in  his 
written  exercises.  Above  all,  the  teacher  should  be 
careful  about  his  own  language,  both  as  to  the  choice  of 
words  and  the  form  of  expression. 

Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  writing  wrong  forms  on 
the  board,  or  elsewhere,  for  correction  by  young  chil- 
dren. This  may  be  done  with  profit  in  advanced 
classes,  but  it  is  best  that  a  beginner  should  never 
see  a  wrong  form  of  word  or  expression  in  the  school- 
room. Correct  all  bad  English  instantly  and  quietly, 
but  teach  only  the  best,  and  bear  in  mind  that  the  best 
is  nearly  always  the  simplest. 

This  instruction  in  language  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance to  the  child.  "Just  as  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree  's 
inclined,"  and  a  man  frequently  bears  unconsciously 
through  life  the  marks  of  his  early  training.  Habits  of 
incorrect  speech  acquired  in  childhood  become  a  part  of 
a  man's  nature,  and  cling  to  him  in  his  old  age  in  spite 
of  the  cultivation  of  later  years. 

But  language  lessons  should  not  stop  with  the  correc- 
tion of  language ;  they  should  teach,  also,  the  proper 
use  of  the  different  parts  of  speech  and  the  meaning  of 
words.  We  do  not  mean  the  formal  rules  of  grammar, 
nor  the  formal  definitions  of  the  dictionary ;  but,  by 
skillfully  prepared  and  carefully  graded  oral  exercises, 
practically  illustrated,  the  child's  vocabulary  may  be  ex- 
tended, and  he  may  be  taught  to  understand  and  to  use 


AUXILIARY  STUDIES.  1 3 

English  correctly, — when  to  use  is  and  when  to  use  are ; 
to  distinguish  between  tJiis  and  tJiat,  and  tJiese  and  those, 
I  and  })ic,  who  and  ivJiicJi,  slow  and  slowly,  strong, 
stronger,   and  strongest,   etc.,    etc. 

Writing. — The  reading  and  the  writing  of  script 
should  be  begun  with  the  first  reading  lesson.  Chil- 
dren in  the  primary  classes  are  occupied  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  time  in  reciting,  and  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  employ  the  remainder  of  their  time  in 
school  in  some  way  that  will  interest  as  well  as  instruct 
them.  In  no  other  way  can  this  time  be  employed  to 
better  advantage  than  by  having  the  scholars  copy  on 
their  slates,  or  on  the  blackboard,  both  the  printed  and 
written  forms  of  the  letters  and  words  learned  in  their 
reading  lesson,  for  in  no  other  way  will  the  characters  be 
so  indelibly  stamped    upon   the    minds   of   the  children. 

To  facilitate  instruction  in  these  writing  lessons,  we 
present,  on  the  four  pages  following,  the  "Slate  Exer- 
cises" to  be  found  on  pages  61-64  of  McGuffey's  Re- 
vised Eclectic  Primer.  They  will  be  found  invaluable  in 
this  connection,  and  are  repeated  here  for  the  benefit  of 
those  teachers  who  for  any  reason  do  not  wish  to  use 
the  Primer,  and  think  it  best  to  begin  with  the  First 
Reader.  In  these  Exercises,  the  small  script  letters  are 
given  in  the  order  of  their  simplicity.  They  should  be 
practiced  as  given  in  the  copy,  first  separately,  and  then 
in  combination,  forming  a  word.  It  is  not  intended  that 
the  class  should  be  confined  to  the  exercises  presented 
in  the  book.  As  rapidly  as  new  letters  are  introduced, 
the  teacher  should  form  new  words,  and  the  exercises 
may  then  be  multiplied  at  discretion. 

By   the    time    a   child    has    completed    pages    14,     15, 
and    16,   he  should  be  familiar  with  all   the   small  script 


14 


READING. 


AUXILIARY  STUDIES. 


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READING. 


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AUXILIARY  STUDIES. 


17 


E.  M.-2. 


1 8  READING. 

letters.  The  capitals,  given  alphabetically  on  page  17, 
and  the  script  figures  should  be  taught  gradually,  ac- 
cording to  the  daily  requirements  of  the  reading  lessons. 
The  copies  presented  on  these  four  pages  may  be  used 
apart,  if  so  desired,  simply  as  writing  lessons,  and  to 
employ  the  unoccupied  time  of  the  children,  but  this 
work  should  by  no  means  be  allowed  to  interfere  with 
the  writing  to  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  reading 
lessons,   which  should  be  conducted  as  follows : 

Before  beginning  work,  see  that  each  child  is  provided 
with  a  slate  properly  ruled.  ^  It  is  important,  too,  that 
each  child  should  have  a  long  and  neatly  sharpened  slate 
pencil,  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  slate  work 
is  preparatory  to  work  in  the  copy-books ;  and  it  is  very 
necessary  that  the  first  steps  should  be  taken  properly, 
and  that  no  bad  habits  be  formed.  The  child  must  be 
taught  to  hold  a  pencil  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  he 
will  be  taught  in  future  to  hold  a  pen.  (See  Hand-book 
to  the  New  Eclectic  Penmanship,  page  24.)  This  is  an 
impossibility   with   a   short    pencil.      Moreover,    a   short 


*  It  is  necessary  that  this  ruling  be  done  very  carefully,  and,  to 
secure  the  necessary  accuracy  and  uniformity,  the  teacher  himself 
should  rule  all  the  slates.  The  proper  form  of  ruhng  is  shown  on 
pages  14,  15,  and  16.  The  lines  should  be  scratched  on  the  slate 
with  some  sharp  instrument,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  make  all 
hnes  exactly  parallel  and  at  right  angles  to  the  side  of  the  slate, 
also  to  make  the  corresponding  spaces  precisely  equal.  A  steel 
pen  from  which  the  points  have  been  broken,  leaving  two  stubs 
about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  will  be  found  of  much  assist- 
ance in  scratching  the  lines  properly.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  rule 
the  lines  first  with  a  slate  pencil,  and,  when  you  have  thus  located 
them  just  as  they  should  be,  go  over  the  pencil  lines  with  a 
scratcher. 


A  UXILIAR  Y  STUDIES.  1 9 

pencil  invariably  leads  to  the  bad  habit  of  cramping  the 
hand,  while  a  clumsy,  blunt  pencil  can  be  expected  to 
produce  but  clumsy  work.  An  intelligent  teacher  will 
look  carefully  after  just  such  points  in  order  to  produce 
the  best  results. 

Of  course,  too  great  precision  in  the  form  and  slant 
of  the  letters,  or  in  any  of  the  "  fine  points  "  of  writing, 
is  not  to  be  expected  of  very  young  children.  Let 
details  go  unnoticed  at  first,  and  be  content  with  a  care- 
ful correction  of  glaring  faults  in  the  position  of  the 
body  and  the  limbs,  in  the  manner  of  holding  the  pencil, 
etc.  Little  by  little,  one  after  another,  the  errors  may 
be  corrected  and  good  habits  formed.  Thus,  when 
work  in  the  copy-books  is  commenced,  tasks  will  prove 
easy  and  progress  will  be  rapid. 

Give  each  child  credit  for  effort,  no  matter  how  crude 
the  first  writing  may  be.  The  mere  attempt  at  writing 
is  meritorious,  and  it  is  very  important  that  the  child 
should  not  become  discouraged  at  the  outset. 

Begin  the  lesson  in  writing  by  putting  on  the  black- 
board, between  a  head  and  a  base  line,  in  large,  well- 
formed  script,  the  first  word  learned  in  the  reading 
lesson,  or  the  first  letter  taught  by  the  Phonic  method, 
and  let  the  children  try  to  copy  it  on  their  slates  ;  when 
this  is  fairly  learned,  take  up  the  next  word  or  letter, 
and  so  on,  until  the  children  can  write  all  the  words  of 
the  lesson.  The  children  are  supposed  to  learn  the 
printed  forms  of  these  words  in  the  reading  lesson 
proper ;  and,  if  thought  best  to  do  so,  the  printed  forms 
may  also  be  practiced  on  the  slates,  the  children  using 
their  books  to  copy  from. 

The  teacher  should  explain  that  the  script  forms  mean 
exactly  the  same  thing  as  the  printed  forms,  and  should 


20  READING. 

see  that  this  is  thoroughly  clear  to  the  pupils.  Lest 
there  should  be  confusion  on  this  point,  many  teachers 
prefer  to  teach  the  writing  of  script  only.  With  a  little 
care,  however,  there  need  be  no  confusion,  and  practice 
on  the  printed  forms  certainly  aids  to  fix  them  in  the 
child's  memory.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to 
advance  very  slowly  at  first.  Do  not  introduce  the 
second  word  until  the  first  is  fairly  learned.  When  all 
the  words  are  learned,  they  should  be  combined,  and 
a  part  of  the  reading  lesson  for  each  day  should  be 
written  on  the  slates,  and  then  read  aloud. 

The  script  exercises  throughout  the  Primer  and  Read- 
ers are  made  up  of  only  such  words  as  have  preceded 
them  in  print.  They  present  no  difficulties,  therefore, 
except  as  exercises  in  writing  and  reading  script.  Let 
them  be  used  as  copies  for  slate  work. 

Object  Lessons  and  Composition. — As  soon  as  the 
children  have  learned  a  sufficient  number  of  words  to 
make  it  practicable,  have  them  compose  sentences  differ- 
ing from  those  found  in  the  book.  The  review  lessons 
in  the  Primer  and  Readers  are  constructed  entirely  from 
words  learned  in  preceding  lessons,  and  the  teacher  can 
readily  make  others  of  a  similar  nature.  At  first  it  will 
be  necessary  to  dictate  sentences  for  the  children  to 
write,  or  to  put  sentences  on  the  board  for  them  to 
copy,  but  in  a  short  time  the  children  will  be  able  to 
compose  their  own  sentences,  and  they  should  be  en- 
couraged to  do  this  as  early  as  possible,  for  children 
should  be  led  to  think  for  themselves,  and  not  merely  to 
imitate. 

The  illustrations  of  the  Readers  should  be  used  as  the 
basis  of  object  lessons,  and  short  compositions  should  be 
written  about  them.      Before  giving  a  lesson  of  this  kind 


AUXILIARY  STUDIES.  21 

to  the  class,  have  a  talk  with  them  about  the  picture 
that  is  to  be  the  subject.  The  field  is  a  wide  one,  but 
much  depends  upon  the  adroitness  of  the  teacher  in 
making  suggestions  and  developing  ideas,  so  as  to  get 
all  the  good  possible  out  of  the  lesson. 

Long  experience  shows  conclusively  that  object  lessons 
are  of  little  or  no  value  except  in  connection  with  writ- 
ing. The  two  branches  should  therefore  be  taught  in 
combination. 

Do  not  confine  the  object  lessons  to  the  reader  illus- 
trations. A  collection  of  familiar  objects,  such  as  pieces 
of  metal,  wood,  and  flowers,  felt  and  leather,  etc., 
should  be  made  for  use  in  this  connection.  Occasion- 
ally, let  the  children  select  their  own  subjects  for  compo- 
sition in  what  they  see  about  them  in  the  school-room 
or  at  home,  at  churches,  art  galleries,  or  museums,  or  on 
their  way  to  and  from  school.  In  short,  let  them  write 
about  whatever  interests  them.  Interest  is  the  mainspring 
of  this  form  of  study.  Encourage  it  in  every  possible 
way.  Stir  up  a  healthful  spirit  of  rivalry  among  the 
children  as  to  who  can  see  the  most  and  describe  it  in  the 
best  manner.  Do  not  be  too  strict  as  to  precise  forms, 
but  stimulate  freedom  of  expression.  This  exercise 
trains  the  observation,  gives  the  child  fluency  in  using 
the  words  he  has  learned,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  drill 
in  expression  and  grammar,  and  in  penmanship. 

The  exercises  should  be  begun  as  early  as  possible, — 
that  is,  just  as  soon  as  a  child,  without  forcing,  can  ex- 
press an  idea  in  its  written  form, — and  they  should  be 
continued  throughout  the  school  course.  As  the  child 
takes  up  successively  the  studies  of  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, history,  grammar,  and  natural  science,  his  mind 
develops  and  his  ideas  broaden ;  nothing  will  assist  this 


20  READING. 

see  that  this  is  thoroughly  clear  to  the  pupils.  Lest 
there  should  be  confusion  on  this  point,  many  teachers 
prefer  to  teach  the  writing  of  script  only.  With  a  little 
care,  however,  there  need  be  no  confusion,  and  practice 
on  the  printed  forms  certainly  aids  to  fix  them  in  the 
child's  memory.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to 
advance  very  slowly  at  first.  Do  not  introduce  the 
second  word  until  the  first  is  fairly  learned.  When  all 
the  words  are  learned,  they  should  be  combined,  and 
a  part  of  the  reading  lesson  for  each  day  should  be 
written  on  the  slates,  and  then  read  aloud. 

The  script  exercises  throughout  the  Primer  and  Read- 
ers are  made  up  of  only  such  words  as  have  preceded 
them  in  print.  They  present  no  difficulties,  therefore, 
except  as  exercises  in  writing  and  reading  script.  Let 
them  be  used  as  copies  for  slate  work. 

Object  Lessons  and  Composition. — As  soon  as  the 
children  have  learned  a  sufficient  number  of  words  to 
make  it  practicable,  have  them  compose  sentences  differ- 
ing from  those  found  in  the  book.  The  review  lessons 
in  the  Primer  and  Readers  are  constructed  entirely  from 
words  learned  in  preceding  lessons,  and  the  teacher  can 
readily  make  others  of  a  similar  nature.  At  first  it  will 
be  necessary  to  dictate  sentences  for  the  children  to 
write,  or  to  put  sentences  on  the  board  for  them  to 
copy,  but  in  a  short  time  the  children  will  be  able  to 
compose  their  own  sentences,  and  they  should  be  en- 
couraged to  do  this  as  early  as  possible,  for  children 
should  be  led  to  think  for  themselves,  and  not  merely  to 
imitate. 

The  illustrations  of  the  Readers  should  be  used  as  the 
basis  of  object  lessons,  and  short  compositions  should  be 
written  about  them.      Before  giving  a  lesson  of  this  kind 


AUXILIARY  STUDIES.  21 

to  the  class,  have  a  talk  with  them  about  the  picture 
that  is  to  be  the  subject.  The  field  is  a  wide  one,  but 
much  depends  upon  the  adroitness  of  the  teacher  in 
making  suggestions  and  developing  ideas,  so  as  to  get 
all  the  good  possible  out  of  the  lesson. 

Long  experience  shows  conclusively  that  object  lessons 
are  of  little  or  no  value  except  in  connection  with  writ- 
ing. The  two  branches  should  therefore  be  taught  in 
combination. 

Do  not  confine  the  object  lessons  to  the  reader  illus- 
trations. A  collection  of  familiar  objects,  such  as  pieces 
of  metal,  wood,  and  flowers,  felt  and  leather,  etc., 
should  be  made  for  use  in  this  connection.  Occasion- 
ally, let  the  children  select  their  own  subjects  for  compo- 
sition in  what  they  see  about  them  in  the  school-room 
or  at  home,  at  churches,  art  galleries,  or  museums,  or  on 
their  way  to  and  from  school.  In  short,  let  them  write 
about  whatever  interests  them.  Interest  is  the  mainspring 
of  this  form  of  study.  Encourage  it  in  every  possible 
way.  Stir  up  a  healthful  spirit  of  rivalry  among  the 
children  as  to  who  can  see  the  most  and  describe  it  in  the 
best  manner.  Do  not  be  too  strict  as  to  precise  forms, 
but  stimulate  freedom  of  expression.  This  exercise 
trains  the  observation,  gives  the  child  fluency  in  using 
the  words  he  has  learned,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  drill 
in  expression  and  grammar,  and  in  penmanship. 

The  exercises  should  be  begun  as  early  as  possible, — 
that  is,  just  as  soon  as  a  child,  wit Jiotit  forcing,  can  ex- 
press an  idea  in  its  written  form, — and  they  should  be 
continued  throughout  the  school  course.  As  the  child 
takes  up  successively  the  studies  of  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, history,  grammar,  and  natural  science,  his  mind 
develops  and  his  ideas  broaden;  nothing  will  assist  this 


^2  READINC. 

mental  growth  so  materially  as  the  practice  of  putting 
into  written  words  the  facts  learned  and  the  thought 
evolved.  Geography,  history,  and  science  furnish  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  interesting  topics ;  arithmetic 
develops  logic,  and  grammar  assists  expression.  Thus, 
composition  is  a  sure  index  to  the  intelligent  teacher  of 
the  mental  development  of  the  child ;  whether  he  has 
profited  by  teaching,  and  has  acquired  ideas,  or  simply 
** words,  words,  words."  In  fine,  there  is  no  more  im- 
portant study  in  the  common  school  curriculum  than 
that  of  original  composition.  Unfortunately,  there  is  no 
study  which  is  more  neglected. 

Spelling  has  to  do  with  written  language  only.  It 
bears  the  same  relation  to  the  written  word  that  pronun- 
ciation does  to  the  spoken  word;  and  if  there  was  no 
such  thing  as  writing  or  printing,  there  would  be  no 
such  thing  as  spelling.  Spelling,  then,  is  properly  taught 
in  connection  with  writing.  If  taught  orally  only,  it  is 
of  but  little  use,  and  while  children  may  appear  to  make 
rapid  progress  in  this  department,  and  be  able  to  spell 
difficult  and  unusual  words  in  a  manner  wonderful  to  the 
casual  visitor  at  the  school,  yet  these  difficult  and 
unusual  words  are  forgotten,  as  a  rule,  as  soon  as  the 
drilling  process  is  abandoned ;  whereas,  the  aim  of  spell- 
ing is  so  to  drill  the  child  that  in  his  after  life,  when 
school  days  are  over,  he  can  write  any  word  in  his  vo- 
cabulary instantly,  without  a  doubt  or  a  thought  as  to 
its  spelling. 

If  the  writing  lessons  suggested  are  performed  in  con- 
nection with  each  day's  reading  lesson,  the  child  uncon- 
sciously learns  to  spell  each  word  by  writing  it  over  and 
over  again,  and  if  the  teacher  does  his  duty  in  the  care- 
ful correction  of  the  object  lessons  and  compositions  of 


AUXILIARY  STUDIES.  1% 

his  classes,  there  will  be  no  need  of  formal  spelling 
lessons  in  the  first  years  of  school  work.  The  speHing- 
book  has  its  proper  place,  and  a  valuable  one,  but  that 
place  is  not  in  primary  classes.  The  practice  of  select- 
ing words  for  spelling  from  the  readers  and  exercises 
should  be  continued  in  all  grades,  even  when  the  spell- 
ing-book is  used. 


II. 

METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

READING  naturally  presents  itself  as  the  first 
subject  to  be  taught  to  young  children.  It  is  the 
foundation  upon  which  the  education  is  built,  the  key 
that  unlocks  all  other  branches  of  study.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  then,  that  this  first  step  in  educa- 
tion be  taken  in  the  proper  manner  and  in  the  right 
direction.  It  is  possible,  on  the  one  hand,  greatly  to 
interest  the  little  child  from  the  outset  of  his  school  life ; 
and,  on  the  other,  to  discourage  him  utterly,  and  so 
disgust  him  with  study  that  he  presents  to  us  anew 
Shakespeare's  picture  of 

"  The  whining  school-boy,  with  his  satchel 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school," 

Properly  conducted,  the  reading  lesson  may  be  made 
a  source  of  real  pleasure  to  the  child,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  well-spring  of  information  on  many  subjects. 
Improperly  conducted,  it  becomes  a  mere  memorizing, 
mechanical  process,  devoid  of  all  interest,  and  burden- 
some alike  to  teacher  and  pupil. 

While  the  rapidity  of  advancement  depends  largely 
upon  the  natural  intelligence  of  the  pupils,  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  work  and  the  real  good  accomplished  depend 
almost  entirely  upon  the  intelligence  of  the  teacher  and 
the  method  of  conducting  the  recitation. 

(24) 


METHODS  OF   TEACHING,  25 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  by  experienced 
teachers  and  others  as  to  methods  of  teaching  reading. 
The  Alphabet,  Phonic,  Phonetic,  Word,  and  Script 
methods,  and  perhaps  others, — all  have  their  warm  ad- 
herents, who  claim  that  their  particular  method  is  tJie 
only  method  by  which  reading  can  be  taught  properly ; 
and  yet  we  know  that  almost  equally  good  results  are 
obtained  by  teachers  who  use  different  methods. 

No  doubt  some  methods  are  better  than  others,  and  it 
is  certain  that  some  one  well-approved  method  should 
be  adopted ;  but  we  wish  to  warn  the  young  teacher 
especially  of  the  danger  that  the  method  will  become  a 
hobby  unless  he  is  careful,  and  that  thus  the  end  will  be 
lost  sight  of  in  attention  to  the  means.  Select  your 
method,  and  be  consistent  in  its  use,  but  do  not  allow 
yourself  to  be  bound  by  laws  that  will  admit  of  no  dis- 
play of  judgment. 

Probably  the  three  most  clearly  defined  and  distinctly 
different  methods  are  the  Alphabet,  the  Word,  and  the 
Phonic  methods.  The  Alphabet  Method  is  still  used  in 
some  of  the  best  graded  schools  in  the  country;  there- 
fore, the  Revised  Eclectic  Primer  and  Readers  are  so 
prepared  as  to  meet  fully  the  requirements  of  this 
method,  should  a  teacher  see  fit  to  employ  it.  The 
printed  alphabets,  large  and  small,  may  be  found  on 
pages  4  and  5  of  the  Primer,  and  on  page  4  of  the  First 
Reader.  The  corresponding  script  alphabets  are  given 
on  page  5  of  the  First  Reader.  By  this  method,  the 
child  is  first  taught  the  letters,  then  to  combine  the 
letters  into  words,  and  finally  to  combine  words  into 
sentences.  No  attention  is  paid  in  this  method  to  dia- 
critical marks ;  and  the  names  of  letters  are  taught,  not 
the  sounds. 

E.M.— 3. 


26  READING. 

The  Word  Method  teaches  a  child  to  recognize  words 
as  wholes;  and,  where  objects  are  used  in  illustrating  the 
first  steps,  it  is  sometimes  called  the  Object  Method. 
This  method  pays  no  attention  to  elementary  sounds  and 
diacritical  marks.  After  a  number  of  words  are  taught 
as  wholes,  the  children  are  told  the  names  of  the  letters, 
and  learn  to  spell. 

By  the  Phonic  Method,  the  child  is  first  taught  the 
elementary  sounds  of  letters ;  he  is  then  taught  to  com- 
bine these  elementary  sounds  into  words.  The  sound  is 
first  taught,  and  then  the  character  which  represents  it ; 
the  spoken  word  is  learned,  and  then  its  written  and 
printed  form.  This  method  pays  no  attention  to  words 
as  wholes  until  the  elementary  sounds  composing  them 
are  learned. 

The  Combined  Word  and  Phonic  Method  first  presents 
the  word  as  a  whole,  and  after  a  number  of  words  are 
learned  in  this  way,  the  elementary  sounds  composing 
them  are  taught,  with  the  characters  which  represent 
them. 

While  McGuffey's  Readers  are  prepared  to  meet  the 
demands  of  each  of  the  recognized  methods,  they  are 
especially  adapted  to  the  Phonic  Method  and  to  the 
Combined  Word  and  Phonic  Method,  which  are  the  two 
methods  most  extensively  used  by  successful  teachers  of 
primary  reading.  It  is  suggested,  therefore,  that  the 
teacher  select  one  of  these  methods  of  instruction.  In 
order  that  both  may  be  fully  understood,  we  give  a 
rather  full  description  of  their  different  principles  and 
processes. 

The  Combined  Method  aims  to  teach  the  child  to  read 
just  as  he  learned  to  talk.  The  child,  before  coming  to 
school,    has   learned   to  associate  the  spoken  word  with 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING.  2/ 

the  object,  quality,  action,  etc.,  which  that  word  repre- 
sents. He  knows  nothing  of  the  component  parts  of  a 
word ;  he  simply  knows  the  sound  of  the  word  as  a 
whole.  The  Combined  Method  aims  to  continue  the 
child's  mental  development  naturally  from  this  point ;  it 
utilizes  the  child's  knowledge  of  the  spoken  symbol  to 
teach  him  to  associate  the  corresponding  written  or 
printed  symbol  w^ith  the  object,  quality,  or  action  repre- 
sented by  it. 

The  Combined  Method  contemplates  the  following 
steps : 

1.  The  object,  or  picture  of  the  object,  is  first  pre- 
sented to  the  child,  and  its  name  called  for ;  then  the 
word  is  given,  and  written  upon  the  board.  Both  object 
and  word  are  observed  until  the  child  instantly  associates 
the  one  with  the  other. 

2.  The  word  is  impressed  on  the  child's  mind  by 
requiring  him  to  write  it,  or  to  print  and  write  it,  over 
and  over  again. 

3.  Words  united  into  phrases  and  sentences  are 
taught  in  the  same  manner  as  single  words;  that  is,  the 
idea  is  developed  first.  The  child  is  led  to  express  the 
thought  in  words,  and  these  words  are  then  presented  to 
his  eye  and  impressed  upon  his  memory. 

4.  The  child  learns  to  use  written  words  by  combin- 
ing them  himself   into  phrases  and  sentences. 

5.  Words  are  analyzed,  or  separated  into  their  ele- 
mentary sounds. 

6.  The  child  learns  the  letters  or  combinations  of 
letters  that  represent  these  elementary  sounds. 

7.  The  child  learns  to  combine  the  letters  so  as  to 
form  new  words. 

8.  The  use  of  diacritical  marks  and  of   the  marks  of 


28  READING. 

punctuation  are  learned  gradually  by  the  association  of 
ideas. 

9.  Spelling  is  unconsciously  learned  by  repeatedly 
writing  the  words  of  the  reading  lesson. 

This  order  is  followed  in  the  detailed  instructions  for 
conducting  the  first  lesson  of  McGuffey's  Revised  Primer. 
See  page  33. 

The  Phonic  Method  also  aims  to  lead  a  child  naturally 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  primary  distinc- 
tion between  it  and  the  Combined  Method  is  that  the 
sense  of  hearing  is  first  appealed  to  instead  of  the  sight. 
Long  before  a  child  can  speak,  he  is  able  to  distinguish 
sounds.  He  recognizes  the  voices  of  his  mother,  father, 
brothers,  and  sisters,  and  distinguishes  each  from  the 
others.  It  is  claimed,  therefore,  by  the  adherents  of 
this  method,  that  inasmuch  as  hearing  is  the  sense  which 
is  first  developed,  it  should  be  used  rather  than  the 
sight  in  the  preliminary  steps.  The  following  order  of 
teaching  reading  is  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
the  Phonic  Method : 

1.  The  child  is  taught  the  nature  of  sound. 

2.  The  child  is  required  to  distinguish  sounds  of 
different  kinds. 

3.  The  written  characters  which  represent  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  of  our  language  are  next  taught,  com- 
mencing with  the  simplest  sounds;  that  is,  the  short 
vocals. 

4.  The  elementary  sounds  are  combined  so  as  to  form 
written  words. 

5.  Written  words  are  combined  into  sentences. 

6.  A  few  words  made  up  of  difficult  sounds  should 
be  taught  as  wholes.  The  articles  a,  an,  and  tJie  are  of 
this  nature;    and   these  are  not  only  taught   as   wholes, 


METHODS   OF    TEACHING.  2g 

but  must  invariably  be  taught  in  combination  with  the 
words  following. 

Note. — This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  not  in  conformity  with  a  pure 
Phonic  method,  but  it  is  the  course  pursued  universally  by  the 
best  teachers. 

7.  The  children  are  now  required  to  make  the  transi- 
tion from  script  to  Roman  or  printed  forms. 

8.  The  meaning  of  words  is  carefully  developed. 

9.  The  use  of  capital  letters  and  the  principal  marks 
of  punctuation  are  taught  gradually,  as  they  are  used  in 
the  text. 

10.  The  children  are  taught  to  spell  orally  and  by 
writing. 

11.  The  children  are  led  to  discover  the  expression 
through  the  thought. 

By  comparing  the  several  steps  of  the  Combined  and 
the  Phonic  methods,  we  note  the  following  principal 
differences : 

1.  The  Phonic  Method  appeals  first  to  the  ear.  The 
Combined  Method,    to  the  eye. 

2.  The  Phonic  Method  first  teaches  the  elementary 
sounds,  and  then  combines  them  into  words.  The  Com- 
bined Method  first  presents  the  word,  and  then  separates 
it  into  its  elementary  sounds.  In  this  step,  the  Phonic 
Method  is  synthetic;  the  Combined  Method  is  analytic. 

Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  Combined  Method  employs 
synthesis  later  in  requiring  the  pupil  to  unite  the  elementary  sounds 
into  words. 

3.  The  Phonic  Method  teaches  the  diacritical  marks  at 
the  beginning.  The  Combined  Method  does  not  teach 
them  until  words  are  learned  as  wholes. 


28  READING. 

punctuation  are  learned  gradually  by  the  association  of 
ideas. 

9.  Spelling  is  unconsciously  learned  by  repeatedly 
writing  the  words  of  the  reading  lesson. 

This  order  is  followed  in  the  detailed  instructions  for 
conducting  the  first  lesson  of  McGuffey's  Revised  Primer. 
See  page  33. 

The  Phonic  Method  also  aims  to  lead  a  child  naturally 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  primary  distinc- 
tion between  it  and  the  Combined  Method  is  that  the 
sense  of  hearing  is  first  appealed  to  instead  of  the  sight. 
Long  before  a  child  can  speak,  he  is  able  to  distinguish 
sounds.  He  recognizes  the  voices  of  his  mother,  father, 
brothers,  and  sisters,  and  distinguishes  each  from  the 
others.  It  is  claimed,  therefore,  by  the  adherents  of 
this  method,  that  inasmuch  as  hearing  is  the  sense  which 
is  first  developed,  it  should  be  used  rather  than  the 
sight  in  the  preliminary  steps.  The  following  order  of 
teaching  reading  is  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
the  Phonic  Method: 

1.  The  child  is  taught  the  nature  of  sound. 

2.  The  child  is  required  to  distinguish  sounds  of 
different  kinds. 

3.  The  written  characters  which  represent  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  of  our  language  are  next  taught,  com- 
mencing with  the  simplest  sounds;  that  is,  the  short 
vocals. 

4.  The  elementary  sounds  are  combined  so  as  to  form 
written  words. 

5.  Written  words  are  combined  into  sentences. 

6.  A  few  words  made  up  of  difficult  sounds  should 
be  taught  as  wholes.  The  articles  a,  an,  and  tJie  are  of 
this  nature;    and   these  are  not  only  taught   as   wholes, 


METHODS   OF    TEACHING.  2g 

t 

but  must  invariably  be  taught  in  combination  with  the 
words  following. 

Note. — This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  not  in  conformity  with  a  pure 
Phonic  method,  but  it  is  the  course  pursued  universally  by  the 
best  teachers. 

7.  The  children  are  now  required  to  make  the  transi- 
tion from  script  to  Roman  or  printed  forms. 

8.  The  meaning  of  words  is  carefully  developed. 

9.  The  use  of  capital  letters  and  the  principal  marks 
of  punctuation  are  taught  gradually,  as  they  are  used  in 
the  text. 

10.  The  children  are  taught  to  spell  orally  and  by 
writing. 

11.  The  children  are  led  to  discover  the  expression 
through  the  thought. 

By  comparing  the  several  steps  of  the  Combined  and 
the  Phonic  methods,  we  note  the  following  principal 
differences : 

1.  The  Phonic  Method  appeals  first  to  the  ear.  The 
Combined  Method,   to  the  eye. 

2.  The  Phonic  Method  first  teaches  the  elementary 
sounds,  and  then  combines  them  into  words.  The  Com- 
bined Method  first  presents  the  word,  and  then  separates 
it  into  its  elementary  sounds.  In  this  step,  the  Phonic 
Method  is  synthetic;  the  Combined  Method  is  analytic. 

Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  Combined  Method  employs 
synthesis  later  in  requiring  the  pupil  to  unite  the  elementary  sounds 
into  words. 

3.  The  Phonic  Method  teaches  the  diacritical  marks  at 
the  beginning.  The  Combined  Method  does  not  teach 
them  until  words  are  learned  as  wholes. 


30  READING. 

\ 

The  detailed  instructions  for  Lesson  I  of  the  First 
Reader  are  in  accordance  with  the  Phonic  Method.  The 
teacher  should  carefully  compare  these  instructions  with 
those  for  conducting  the  first  lessons  of  the  Primer 
before  deciding  which  method  he  will  use.  It  is  of 
course  understood  that,  whichever  method  be  adopted, 
it  must  be  used  in  teaching  both  the  Primer  and  the 
First  Reader. 

In  the  selection  of  a  method,  the  teacher  has  simply 
to  consider  by  which  one  he  can  teach  a  child  in  the 
shortest  time  to  read  simple  sentences  intelligently. 
This  is  the  chief  aim  in  primary  reading  classes.  After 
a  certain  point,  of  course,  no  matter  what  the  method, 
the  primary  steps  are  abandoned  as  no  longer  necessary, 
and  the  teacher  must  then  bear  constantly  in  mind  the 
two  main  objects  in  learning  the  art  of  reading. 

The  first  object  in  reading,  as  we  understand  it,  is  to 
apprehend  properly  the  thought  of  the  writer;  and  the 
second  object,  that  of  oral  reading,  is  to  communicate 
this  thought  to  others  clearly  and  in  the  author's  exact 
words.  The  word  ''thought,"  in  this  connection,  is  in- 
tended to  include,  however,  not  only  the  exact  words 
of  the  writer,  but  also  the  mind  or  soul  that  inspired 
the  words.  Without  the  latter,  reading  is  unintelligent 
and  profitless.  The  constant  care,  then,  should  be  to 
see  that  the  child  grasps  the  idea  fully  before  he 
attempts  to  express  it  in  words.  ''Ideas  before  words" 
always,  but  in  no  study  should  this  rule  be  more  strictly 
observed  than  in  teaching  reading.  When  a  printed  or 
written  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  evolves  a  clear  idea  in 
a  child's  mind,  he  expresses  it  naturally ;  or,  in  other 
words,  he  reads  exactly  as  he  would  speak,  and  this  is 
the    proof   to    the    hearer   that    the    reader    understands 


METHODS  OF   TEACHING.  3  I 

what  he  is  reading.  This  is  the  chief  use  of  oral  read- 
inii  in  tl"^  school-room.  The  teacher  must  not  forjjet 
that  oral  reading  in  after  years  will  be  very  small  in 
comparison  with  silent  reading ;  therefore,  the  child 
should  be  taught  to  gather,  in  silence  and  with  rapidity, 
the  ideas  from  the  printed  page. 


III. 

McGUFFEY'S  PRIMER. 

THE  use  of  this  book  in  the  series  is  optional  with 
the  teacher,  as  the  Readers  have  been  constructed 
independent  of  the  Primer  for  the  accommodation  of 
those  who  are  very  much  Hmited  as  to  time.  It  is, 
however,  strongly  urged  that  the  Primer  be  used  where 
it  is  possible  to  do  so.  The  lessons  are  shorter  and 
simpler,  and  the  gradation  is  less  rapid  than  in  the  First 
Reader ;  hence,  the  first  steps  are  easier  alike  for  teacher 
and  pupil.  The  demand  for  **more  primary  reading 
matter"  is  constantly  increasing,  and  there  are  but  few 
schools  where  it  will  not  be  a  positive  advantage  to  use 
both  Primer  and  First  Reader. 

The  plan  on  which  the  Primer  is  constructed  is  the 
simplest  and  best  known.  It  applies  to  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Readers  as  well,  and  is  as  follows: 

At  the  beginning  of  each  lesson  are  placed  all  the 
new  words  and  all  the  new  elementary  sounds  to  be 
found  in  that  particular  lesson,  and  no  new  word  or  ele- 
ment is  given  in  a  vocabulary  that  is  not  found  in  the 
particular  lesson  which  it  precedes.  Omissions  and 
repetitions  alike  have  been  carefully  avoided  in  these 
vocabularies,  and  thus  the  teacher  can  tell,  by  a  glance 
at  the  vocabulary,  exactly  what  new  work  is  to  be 
mastered. 

The  articles  a,  an,  and  the,  and  the  simplest  words 
possible   are    first    presented    in    both    the    Primer    and 

(32) 


McGUFFEV'S  PRIMER.  33 

First  Reader.  New  words  are  introduced  on  a  carefully 
graded  plan.  The  simplest  elementary  sounds  (the  short 
vocals,  etc.)  are  presented  first.  The  more  difficult 
sounds,  combinations,  and  substitutes  are  then  gradually 
interwoven,  and,  by  the  time  the  Primer  is  finished,  all 
the  vocals,  long  and  short ;  all  the  diphthongs ;  all  the 
aspirates  ;  all  the  subvocals  except  z,  as  in  azure ;  and 
all  the  substitutes  except  i  for  e,  as  in  police ;  cJi  for  shy 
as  in  cJiaise ;  s  for  sJi,  as  in  sure ;  x  for  gz,  as  in  exact; 
ph  for/,  as  in  phlox;  and  qii  for  k,  as  in  pique ,  have 
been  presented.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these  excep- 
tions invariably  involve  words  of  difficult  spelling,  which 
should  not  be  presented  to  the  child  until  the  end  of 
the  first  or  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  of  his 
school  course. 

Lesson  I. — Call  the  attention  of  the  children  to  the 
two  illustrations  accompanying  this  lesson,  the  cat  and 
the  rat,  and  engage  them  in  conversation  about  them. 
Such  questions  as,  Who  has  a  cat  at  home  ?  What  is 
her  color?  Does  she  catch  rats?  etc.,  etc.,  will  soon 
awaken  interest  in  the  subject. 

When  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  children  are 
secured,  revert  to  the  illustration  in  the  book,  and  re- 
sume your  questioning  in  some  such  way  as  follows: 

Teacher. — Do  you  say  that  this  is  a  cat?  Can  it  run  about? 
Can  it  mew?  Can  it  drink  milk?  Can  it  catch  mice  and  rats 
like  your  cat  at  home  ?     Is  it  a  real  cat,  then  ? 

Children. — No. 

Teacher. — Who  can  tell  me,  then,  what  this  is  ?  [Poi?iting  to  the 
picture  of  the  cat  in  the  book^ 

If  you  do  not  succeed  in  drawing  out  the  correct 
answer,  ask  the  class  if  it  is  a  picture  of  a  cat.      When 


34  READING. 

the  answer  is  satisfactorily  given,  proceed  with  the  next 
step. 

Teacher. — You  say  this  is  a  picture  of  a  cat.  It  is  not  a  real 
cat,  but  when  you  look  at  it  you  know  at  once  that  it  means  a 
cat.  Who  would  like  to  see  a  picture  of  the  word  cat,  that  you 
have  just  pronounced  ?  Pronounce  the  word  cat  again,  all  at 
once.     Now — 

Children . — Cat . 

The  teacher  should  now  place  the  word  on  the  board. 
When  this  is  done,  the  teacher  should  resume,  pointing 
to  the  word  on  the  board : 

Teacher. — There,  children,  that  is  the  picture  that  stands  for  the 
word  cat,  just  as  this  picture  in  the  book  stands  for  a  real  cat. 
How  do  you  pronounce  this  word  ?     \Pointing  to  the  board. ^ 

Children. — Cat. 

Teacher. — Now,  who  can  find  a  picture  of  this  word  cat  in  the 
book  ? 

As  the  word  occurs  several  times  in  Lesson  I,  call  up 
several  children,  and  see  how  many  times  each  can  find 
the  word  in  the  lesson.  Be  reasonably  sure  that  all  in 
the  class  are  able  to  recognize  the  word  at  sight  before 
going  any  farther. 

Next  call  attention  to  the  picture  of  the  rat,  and 
follow  the  same  steps  until  the  entire  class  is  familiar 
with  the  word  rat  also.  Then  place  both  the  words  cat 
and  rat  on  the  board  a  number  of  times,  and  test  the 
individual  members  of  the  class,  seeing  that  each  can 
readily  pick  out  the  right  word  when  it  is  pronounced. 
Vary  the  exercise  by  letting  one  child  pronounce  one  of 
the  words  for  another  to  point  out,  and  allow  the  entire 
class  to  correct  errors.  It  will  be  found  that  this  calling 
upon  one  member  of  the  class  to  examine  another  will 
add  greatly  to  the  interest  taken   in  the  recitation. 


McGUFFEY'S  PRIMER.  35 

When  the  two  words  are  quite  thoroughly  mastered, 
it  will  be  time  to  take  up  the  combinations  "a  cat"  and 
"a  rat."     Turn  to  the  illustration,   and  ask: 

Teacher. — Of  what    did    you  say  this  was    a   picture  ?     Did  you 
say  "picture  of  cat"  or  "picture  of  a  cat?" 
Children. — Picture  of  a  cat. 

[Note. — This  is  simply  to  draw  out  the  combination  "a  cat." 
In  asking  the  question  do  not  emphasize  the  a.  \ 

Write  "a  cat"  on  the  board,  and  teach  the  phrase 
as  you  did  the  single  word;  also,  the  phrase  "a  rat." 
Be  very  careful,  in  pronouncing  the  phrase  yourself,  not 
to  give  the  a  its  long  sound,  ''a  rat,"  ''a  cat,"  and 
do  not  allow  the  children  to  do  so.  The  a  should 
have  its  obscure  sound,  as  it  has  in  ordinary  conversa- 
tion, when  one  says,  "This  is  a  cat;  that  is  a  rat,"  or 
as  you  would  sound  the  a  in  along,  around,  abouty  etc. 
This  is  quite  an  important  point ;  and,  if  neglected,  the 
children,  from  the  very  beginning,  acquire  a  drawling 
habit  of   reading  that  may  take  years  to  eradicate. 

Drill  the  class  on  the  phrases,  so  that  they  can  readily 
distinguish  each  from  the  other,  and  from  the  simple 
words  cat  and  rat. 

We  now  come  to  the  word  and.  Ask  the  children: 
"What  are  these  animals  we  have  been  talking  about?" 
If  they  do  not  answer  as  you  wish  the  first  time,  perse- 
vere until  they  do,  and  you  succeed  in  getting  the 
natural  answer,  "A  cat  and  a  rat."  Repeat  their 
answer,  and  emphasize  the  and  a  little.  Ask,  ' '  Who 
can  tell  which  word  we  have  not  studied?  Listen  while 
I  say  it  again:  A  cat  and  a  rat."  Give  the  answer  in 
case  the  class  fails,  and  place  the  word  and  on  the  board. 
Teach  it  as  you  taught  the  other  single  words.      When 


36  READING. 

it  is  learned,  and  all  the  words  and  phrases  can  be  dis- 
tinguished instantly,  it  is  time  to  combine  the  two 
phrases,  and  the  children  should  be  able  to  read  them 
readily  as  printed  in  the  book. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  reading  lesson,  however  short 
it  may  be  made,  begin  the  first  lesson  in  writing  as 
directed  on  page  13,  and  advance  to  the  combination  of 
written  words  into  phrases  and  sentences  as  rapidly  as 
the  progress  of  the  class  will  permit. 

Lesson  II. — In  this  lesson  there  are  five  new  words 
to  be  learned. 

Begin,  as  in  Lesson  I,  with  a  pleasant  talk  about  the 
illustration.  Remind  the  children  of  the  cat  and  rat  in 
Lesson  I,  and  have  them  point  out  the  cat  and  the  rat 
in  the  illustration  of  Lesson  II.  Make  up  a  little  story 
from  the  illustrations  of  Lesson  I  and  Lesson  II ;  or, 
better  still,  have  the  children  make  up  a  story  of  their 
own. 

Ask  who  can  point  out  the  word  cat  in  Lesson  II ;  the 
word  rat;  the  combination  "a  cat;"  the  combination 
*'a  rat."     Proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  in  Lesson  I. 

In  teaching  the  phrases  **the  cat"  and  "the  rat,'' 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  children  to  drawl 
out,  *'t-h-e  c-a-t, "  ''t-h-e  r-a-t. "  These  phrases  should 
be  pronounced  as  in  ordinary  conversation,  "the  cat," 
"the  rat,"  giving  the  e,   in  tJie,    its  obscure  sound. 

Write  all  the  words  and  phrases  contained  in  both 
Lessons  I  and  II  on  the  board  promiscuously,  and  test 
the  thoroughness  of  the  work  so  far  accomplished  by 
having  individual  members  of  the  class  point  out  each 
word  and  phrase  as  it  is  pronounced  by  the  teacher 
or  by  some  other  member  of  the  class.  Proceed  as  in 
Lesson  I. 


McGUFFEY'S  PRIMER.  3/ 

It  is  not  thought  necessary  to  give  detailed  instruc- 
tion for  every  lesson  in  the  book.  If  we  have  suc- 
ceeded in  showing-  in  these  first  two  lessons,  and  in  the 
**  General  Remarks,"  Chapter  V,  the  plan  of  instruction 
by  the  Combined  Method,  we  are  confident  that  any  in- 
telligent teacher  can  use  it  successfully  without  further 
aid. 

Lessons  III  and  IV. — These  lessons  present  no  diffi- 
culties that  need  farther  suggestions,  except  a  new  sound 
of  s  in   Lesson  IV. 

The  teacher  should  call  the  attention  of  the  class  to 
the  difference  between  this  sound  of  s  and  the  s  in  Les- 
son II.  And  it  may  be  accepted  as  a  general  rule  that 
whenever  a  new  sound  of  a  letter  is  introduced,  it  should 
always  be  compared  with  the  sound  or  sounds  of  the 
same  letter  already  learned.  In  this  way,  the  children 
will  soon  become  familiar  with  the  force  of  the  diacritical 
marks.  Always  teach  digraphs  as  such,  and  never  as 
two  separate  letters. 

Lesson  V. — Every  fifth  lesson  in  ^he  book  (except 
the  fiftieth)  is  a  review  of  the  four  lessons  preceding; 
and,  as  far  as  has  been  possible,  the  new  words  of  those 
four  lessons  are  repeated  in  the  review.  These  reviews 
are  valuable,  therefore,  as  tests  of  the  thoroughness  of 
the  work  done,  and  should  be  made  the  most  important 
lessons  in  the  book. 

Hesitation  on  the  part  of  a  number  of  the  class  on  a 
review  lesson  shows  a  fault  somewhere ;  either  the  work 
has  been  pushed  too  rapidly,  or  some  one  lesson,  per- 
haps, has  not  been  thoroughly  mastered.  A  little 
careful  investigation  will  reveal  the  trouble,  and  the  defect 
can  be  remedied,  and  should  be  remedied  thoroughly, 
before  proceeding  with  the   next  series  of  lessons. 


38  READING. 

Lesson  VI. — In  this  lesson  we  have  's,  the  sign  of 
the  possessive,  introduced.  Teach  its  force,  and  see 
that  the  children  fully  understand  it  In  succeeding 
lessons,  it  is  frequently  used  when  the  simple  nomina- 
tive is  given  in  the  vocabulary.  The  sound  of  6  in  dog 
demands  watchfulness.  There  is  a  tendency  to  pro- 
nounce this  word  as  though  it  were  spelled  daivg.  The 
words  frog,  doll,  log,  God,  etc.,  are  similarly  mispro- 
nounced by  many  persons.  This  is  not  the  proper 
sound  of  6,  and  the  same  persons  who  mispronounce 
the  above  words  would  never  think  of  giving  the  same 
sound  to  6  in  such  words  as  fog,  got,  odd,  or  hod.  In- 
sist on  the  proper  sound  of  6  wherever  it  occurs. 

Lesson  XIX. — We  would  call  attention  to  the  sound 
of  a  in  fast.  The  sound  of  a  is  the  most  commonly 
mispronounced  of  all  the  a  sounds,  and  the  error  is 
quite  common,  even  among  the  best  educated  classes. 
Many  who  know  better  give  this  a  the  wrong  sound 
through  the  force  of  habit  and  association  and  the  lack 
of  early  training.  #  The  common  error  consists  in  giving 
a  as  though  it  were  a,  as  in  fat,  for  example.  How 
many  of  your  pupils  make  a  difference  in  the  a  sound 
in  fat  and  fast?  On  the  other  hand,  the  extremely 
broad  a,  as  in  fall,  should  be  avoided.  The  word  is 
neither  pronounced  fast  nor  fast,  but  fast,  about  mid- 
way between   the  two. 

It  would  perhaps  be  well  to  make  a  list  of  the  words 
containing  this  sound  of  a  as  the  class  meets  them,  and 
give  a  special  drill  on   it  from  time  to  time. 

Lesson  XXII. — In  this  lesson,  call  particular  attention 
to  the  difference  in  pronunciation  of  the  words  of  and 
off.  Both  occur  in  the  lesson.  Refer  to  Lesson  XIX 
for  the  phonic  spelling  of  of 


McGUFFEY'S  PRIMER.  39 

Lesson  XXIII. — In  this  lesson,  one  (wwi)  needs  par- 
ticular attention. 

Lesson  XXV.  Review. — The  word  doll  has  been 
learned  in  Lessons  XVI  and  XX.  It  is  here  given  in 
the  plural  form,  dolls.  Other  plurals  have  been  learned 
by  the  pupils.  If  the  class  shows  any  hesitation  over 
the  word,  pronounce  it  and  explain  the  difference  be- 
tween doll  and  dolls  in  simple  language. 

Lesson  XXVII. — The  use  of  the  hyphen  is  illustrated 
in  this  lesson  as  joining  two  separate  words,  mill  and 
po/id,  making  a  compound  word.  See  that  it  is  thor- 
oughly understood.  A  test  of  this  will  be  afforded  in 
reading  the  review,  Lesson  XXX,  where  inill-ivJieel 
occurs,  and  also  in  Lesson  XLI,  where  ligJit-Jwiise  is 
given. 

Lesson  XXXIV. — With  the  close  of  this  lesson,  all 
the  small  letters  of  the  alphabet  have  been  introduced. 
If  the  capitals  have  been  studied  in  connection  with  the 
small  letters,  as  suggested,  and  also  the  script  forms  of 
both,  this  is  the  place  for  a  thorough  review  of  all  the 
alphabets. 

Notice  the  fact  that  none  of  the  words  in  the  vocab- 
ulary of  this  lesson,  except  we,  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing review,  and  the  lesson  should  therefore  receive 
particular  attention. 

Lesson  XXXVI. — Explain  the  meaning  of  the  quo- 
tation marks,  which  are  here  met  with  for  the  first  time. 

Lesson  XXXVIII. — The  quotation  marks  in  this  les- 
son need  further  explanation.  Those  in  Lesson  XXXVI 
indicated  a  simple  quotation  ;  these  represent  a  dialogue 
in   progress. 

Lesson  XLIV. — Particular  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  rather  difficult  words,  said  {sed)  and  ouee  {wiuis). 


40  READING. 

Lesson  XLVIII. — Pay  attention  to  been  {bin). 

Lesson  XLIX. — The  use  of  the  apostrophe  in  77/, 
sJie  'II,  and  dont  demands  careful  explanation.  Write 
the  words  "I  will,"  ''she  will,"  and  ''do  not"  on  the 
board.  Rub  out  the  letters  wi  in  will,  in  each  case,  and 
the  0  in  not,  and  substitute  the  apostrophe,  explaining 
that  the  latter  takes  the  place  of  the  letters  omitted,  or 
"stands  for"  them.  This  ocular  demonstration  will 
make  the  fact  clear  to  the  children  without  much  talk- 
ing. 

Lesson  LI. — Explain  the  hyphen  and  the  acute  accent 
in  the  word  ago. 

Lesson  LII. — This  lesson  and  Lessons  XLVI  and 
XLIX  may  be  used  to  advantage  as  exercises  for  mem- 
orizing and  speaking. 


IV. 

McGUFFEY'S  FIRST  READER. 

IF  the  class  has  studied  the  Revised  Eclectic  Primer 
before  taking  up  this  book,  the  teacher  will  find  the 
way  clear  for  rapid  advancement.  The  first  ten  lessons 
of  the  Reader  contain  only  three  new  words  {^fed,  left, 
and  pafi)  not  already  studied  in  the  Primer.  In  the  next 
seventeen  lessons,  about  half  the  words  are  new;  among 
them,  a  dozen  words  of  two  syllables.  These  latter 
should  not  offer  any  particular  difficulty,  as  a  few  words 
of  this  kind  have  been  met  with  in  the  Primer.  From 
this  point  forward,  the  proportion  of  new  words  and 
two-syllable  words  rapidly  increases,  affording  an  abund- 
ance of  material  for  advance  work.  Attention  will  be 
called  to  any  special  difficulties  that  present  themselves 
under  the  directions  for  each  particular  lesson  demanding 
notice. 

As  before  stated,  the  detailed  instructions  for  the  first 
lessons  of  the  First  Reader  are  in  accordance  with  the 
Phonic  Method.  If  a  teacher  prefers  to  use  the  Com- 
bined Method,  it  is  presumed  that  the  instructions  for 
the  first  lessons  in  the  Primer  will  be  a  sufficient  guide 
for  work  in  the  Readers.  On  the  other  hand,  teachers 
using  the  Phonic  Method  will  be  able,  it  is  thought,  to 
follow  that  method  very  easily  in  the  Primer  after  con- 
sulting the  following  instructions  for  the  First   Reader. 

As  it  can  not  be  assumed  that  all  teachers  will  use 
both  Primer  and  First  Reader,  the  detailed  instructions 

E.  M.— 1.  (41) 


42  READING. 

for  the  latter  have  been  made  as  full  as  though  the 
Primer  had  not  been  used.  This  fact  will  explain  a  few 
repetitions. 

If  the  Primer  is  not  to  be  used,  it  will  be  well  to 
begin  work  with  a  few  preliminary  oral  lessons,  which 
may  be  conducted  as  shown  in  the  following  pages.  If 
the  teacher  intends  to  use  both  the  Primer  and  the  First 
Reader,  and  to  teach  by  the  Phonic  Method,  lessons  cor- 
responding to  the  following  should  precede  the  Primer, 
and  these  lessons  should  be  omitted. 

Recognition  of  Sounds. — After  the  attention  of  the 
children  has  been  gained,  the  teacher  taps  the  table  with 
a  pencil,  and  explains  to  the  children  that  what  they 
hear  is  called  a  soiDid. 

After  repeating  the  same  sound  several  times,  the 
teacher  tells  the  children  to  listen  and  he  will  make 
another  sound.  This  may  be  done  by  tapping  a  bell  or 
a  piece  of  metal,  and  the  children  are  led  to  distinguish 
between  the  two  different  sounds. 

After  a  little  practice  of  this  nature,  tell  the  children 
that  the  words  which  they  hear  and  understand  are 
sounds.  Ask  them  whether,  if  they  heard  two  sounds, 
one  made  by  a  dog,  and  one  by  a  bird,  they  could  tell 
from  the  sounds  which  one  was  made  by  the  bird  and 
which  by  the  dog. 

Tell  them  you  are  now  going  to  try  them,  and  see 
whether  without  looking  they  can  tell  you  the  different 
sounds  you  make.  The  children  may  shut  their  eyes, 
or  stand  with  their  backs  to  the  teacher,  or  the  teacher 
may  make  the  different  sounds  behind  the  desk,  asking 
after  each,  "What  sound  did  you  hear?"  Answers 
like  the  following  may  be  given:  "The  sound  I  heard 
was  a  tap  on  a  bell."      "The  sound  I  heard  was  a  tap 


McGUFFEY'S  FIRST  READER,  43 

on   a   book."      "I    heard   a    talk-sound."      "I    heard    a 
sing-sound." 

It  will  be  found  interesting  and  profitable  to  continue 
this  practice  in  distinguishing  sounds,  in  connection  with 
the  regular  lessons,  till  the  children  catch  the  sounds 
readily  and  accurately.  Each  succeeding  lesson  should 
be  a  more  severe  test  of  the  children's  abilities  than  the 
one  preceding. 

The  Sound  Represented  by  Short  A. — In  commenc- 
ing to  teach  the  elementary  sounds  in  Lesson  I  of  the 
First  Reader,  select  one  of  the  short  vowels.  If  you 
select  a,  you  should  follow  it  by  n  and  r;  if  you  select 
0,  you  should  follow  it  by  g  and  d ;  that  is,  finish  the 
word  with  which  you  begin  before  taking  up  the  sounds 
of  another. 

Begin  by  asking  the  class  to  tell  you  some  sounds  they 
can  make  with  their  mouths.  "We  can  sing."  '*We 
can  talk."  "We  can  wliistle."  "We  cry  sometimes." 
These  may  be  some  of  the  answers  of  the  children. 

The  teacher  says,  "Now  listen  to  me.  I  will  make  a 
sound."  He  gives  the  sound  a.  The  children  repeat  it, 
with  the  teacher,  several  times.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  sound  is  made  short  and  pure.  Have  the  chil- 
dren give  the  sound  alone ;  the  boys  alone ;  the  girls 
alone  ;  the  children  in  the  front  row ;  any  one  who  will 
volunteer;  and,  finally,  each  child  should  be  required  to 
give  the  sound  alone. 

The  teacher  here  explains  that  sounds  can  be  heard 
but  not  seen,  but  marks  may  be  made  to  stand  for 
sounds.  The  teacher  turns  to  the  blackboard,  and,  be- 
tween a  head-line  and  a  base-line,  writes :  y-'^r./y  .  He 
explains  to  the  children  that  when  they  see  this  they  are 
to    make    the    sound    just    learned.      The    children    are 


44  READING. 

shown,  next,  how  to  make  the  character,  and  the 
teacher  asks,  **  How  many  will  try  to  make  this  on  their 
slates?"  Write  the  following  copy  carefully  on  the 
board,  and  have  the  children,  at  their  seats,  imitate  it 
on  their  slates  as  well  as  they  can : 


yf^y    ^jy    ^jy    ^jy    ^yy 


After  practicing  for  a  time,  the  children  should  exhibit 
their  slates  to  the  teacher,  who  should  point  out  the 
faults  carefully  and  delicately,  and  should  give  farther 
explanations  about  writing,  illustrating  on  the  black- 
board.     See  page   13. 

The  word  "Ran." — Teach  the  sound  of  n  as  you 
taught  that  of  a.  Contrast  the  two  sounds  repeatedly, 
and  see  that  the  children  can  distinguish  them  readily 
and  can  produce  them. 

Write  the  character  n  on  the  board  as  copy  for  a  writ- 
ing lesson.  It  may  be  practiced  a  part  at  a  time,  if 
thought  desirable,   as  follows : 


/  /  /  y/y/y/    /y/y/y  yy/yyy/yyy/y 


When  the  children  can  give  the  sounds  and  write  the 
characters  d  and  ?i,  teach  them  to  sound  and  write  their 
combination,   an. 

Teach  the  sound  and  form  of  r,  and  then  the  word 
rd7i  as  a  whole. 

The  word  "Dog." — Teach  the  word  dbg  in  the 
same  gradual  way  that  you  taught  ran,  and  in  the  same 
order,  viz. :  the  sound  of  o ;  its  written  character ;  the 
sound  of  g;  its  written  character ;  the  sound  of  the  com- 
bination bg ;  the  written  combination  bg;    the  sound  of 


McGUFFEY'S  FIRST  READER.  45 

d ;  its  written  character;  the  sounds  of  dog,  as  a  whole; 
the  written  word  as  a  whole. 

The  word  "The." — Do  not  attempt  to  teach  the 
elementary  sounds  composing  tJie,  as  the  obscure  sound 
of  c  is  too  difficult  to  introduce  at  this  point.  It  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  introduce  the  articles  a,  aii,  and  the 
early  in  the  course  on  account  of  their  constant  occur- 
rence in  even  the  simplest  sentences ;  but  they  should 
be  taught,  as  before  suggested,  only  in  combination  with 
the  words  which  follow. 

After  the  word  dog  has  been  learned,  teach  by  sound 
the  phrase,  "the  dog."  Be  very  careful  not  to  accent 
the  tJu\  or  to  give  the  e  its  long  sound,  thus:  "the' 
dog,"  but  pronounce  the  words  naturally,  as  you  w^ould 
in  enumerating  "the  dog,  the  cat,  the  rat,"  etc.,  giving 
the  e  its  obscure  sound,  and  letting  the  accent  fall  on 
dog.  This  is  quite  an  important  point,  as  tJie  should 
never  be  pronounced  in  combination  in  any  other  way 
than  that  here  laid  down,  and  if  the  children  are  allowed 
to  hear  or  to  pronounce  the  words  "the'  dog,"  etc., 
they  will  fall  into  the  habit  of  drawling,  which  will  be 
very  difficult  to  overcome. 

Write  the  combination  on  the  board  with  and  without 
the  capital  T,  thus:  "The  dog,  the  dog."  Pronounce 
the  phrase,  and  have  the  children  pronounce  it  after  you 
correctly,  both  in  concert  and  individually,  as  you  point 
it  out  on  the  board.  Do  not  say  any  thing  about  cap- 
itals and  small  letters  at  this  point.  Simply  say  that  The 
and  the  mean  the  same  thing,  and  drill  the  children  until 
they  can  recognize  each  by  itself  and  in  combination 
with  the  word  dog.  Have  the  pupils  write  the  phrases 
on  their  slates. 

Finally,  teach  the  complete  sentence,   "The  dog  ran." 


4^  READING. 

Length  of  Lessons. — It  is  impossible  to  make  any 
arbitrary  division  of  these  preliminary  lessons.  Each 
teacher  must  decide  for  himself  as  to  the  length  of  the 
lessons,  as  circumstances  dictate.  But  the  caution  may 
be  repeated  not  to  attempt  too  much  in  one  lesson ;  at 
the  same  time,  introduce  enough  new  matter  to  keep  the 
children  interested.  Each  lesson  in  this  preliminary 
work  should  commence  with  a  review  of  all  that  has 
already  been  learned. 


Lesson  I. — The  transition  from  script  to  the  printed 
forms  usually  presents  but  little  difficulty  to  children. 
After  two  or  three  lessons,  they  read  one  form  as  readily 
as  the  other. 

When  the  written  characters  of  the  several  elementary 
sounds  and  words  of  the  first  lesson  are  well  learned  by 
the  children,  write  the  complete  list  on  the  board,  and 
under  each  written  character  and  word  make  its  corre- 
sponding printed  form,  being  careful  to  insert  all  the 
diacritical  marks  in  both  forms.  Drill  the  class  on  these 
printed  forms  at  first  in  connection  with  the  written 
forms  ;  then  rub  out  the  written  forms,  and  drill  on  the 
printed  forms  alone. 

When  the  printed  forms  of  all  the  characters  and 
words  can  be  pointed  out  as  soon  as  sounded,  and 
sounded  as  soon  as  pointed  out,  have  the  children  open 
their  books  and  read  Lesson  I. 

Correct  drawling  and  hesitation  at  once.  Do  not  let 
a  child  say,  *'Th-e'  d-aw-g\  Th-e'  d-aw-g'  r-a-a-n\" 
See  that  each  child  says,  "The  dog\  The  dog'  ran\" 
promptly  and  naturally,  as  they  would  in  speaking,  the 


McGUFFEY'S  FIRST  READER.  47 

moment  the  combinations  are  presented  to  the  eye.      It 
is  essential  to  enforce  this  point  from  the  beginning. 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  in  some  locaHties  to  pro- 
nounce the  word  dog  as  though  it  were  spelled  dawg. 
The  words  frog,  doll,  log,  God,  etc.,  are  similarly  mis- 
pronounced by  many  persons.  This  is  not  the  proper 
sound  of  0,  and  the  same  persons  would  never  think  of 
pronouncing  the  words  frg,  got,  odd,  or  hod,  in  the  same 
way.  Insist  on  the  proper  sound  of  o  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  wherever  it  occurs. 

Lesson  II. — In  this  lesson  we  have  four  new  words 
and  five  new  elementary  sounds. 

Teach  the  new  elementary  sounds,  words,  and  combi- 
nations, as  in  Lesson  I.  The  vocabularies  invariably 
contain  all  new  words  and  sounds,  so  they  will  not  have 
to  be  sought  for  in  the  text. 

Illustrate  the  use  of  the  word  on  by  placing  your 
book,  pencil,  etc.,  on  the  desk,  on  a  chair,  on  your 
hand,  etc. ,  and  ask  in  each  case  wJiere  it  is.  When  the 
class  understands  the  force  and  meaning  of  the  word, 
teach  its  written  form  in  the  usual  manner. 

When  satisfied  that  all  can  recognize  the  printed  new 
characters  and  words  at  sight,  have  the  lesson  read  from 
the  book. 

Explain  the  interrogation  point.  Tell  the  children 
that  when  they  see  that  mark  they  may  always  know 
that  a  question  is  asked.  Have  them  read  the  question, 
"Is  the  cat  on  the  mat?"  giving  the  proper  rising  in- 
flection on  the  last  word.  Then  have  them  read  the 
answer  with  the  downward  inflection  at  the  close,  and 
with  the  proper  emphasis  on  is.  The  proper  expression 
in  this  case,  and  in  similar  ones,  can  usually  be  elicited 
from   the   children    by    a    few    well-put    questions    which 


48  READING, 

teachers  call  "thought  study;"  as,  "What  is  on  the 
mat?"  "Where  is  the  cat?'^  "Is  the  cat  under  the 
mat?" 

Do  not  allow  a  child  to  read  the  question  and  answer 
in  the  painfully  monotonous  way  so  gften  heard  in 
primary  classes,  with  pauses  between  each  word,  and 
with  the  rising  inflection  on  each  word  but  the  last,  as 
follows:  "Is' — the'— cat'— on' — the' — mat^  ?"  "The' — 
cat' — is' — on' — the' — mat\"  Insist  on  having  both  ques- 
tion and  answer  read  in  the  same  natural  tones  that  the 
child  would  employ  in  speaking.  If  the  class  fail  to 
read  the  question  properly,  have  the  books  closed,  and 
select  some  pupil  to  ask  the  question  and  another  to 
answer  it.  Do  not  show  them  how  to  do  it,  and  have 
them  imitate  you.  That  is  simply  "  parrot  work,"  words 
without  thought,  and  the  very  worst  of  all  bad  methods. 
Tell  one  pupil  to  ask  another  if  the  cat  is  on  the  mat, 
just  as  though  he  really  wished  to  know,  and  tell  the 
second  pupil  to  answer,  not  by  "yes"  or  "no,"  but  in 
full,  either  that  the  cat  is  or  is  not  on  the  mat.  When 
this  has  been  done  properly,  have  the  entire  class  ask 
and  answer  the  question,  and  then  have  it  read  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  tones.  Constant  attention  to  just  such 
points  as  this  leads  the  children  to  think  for  them- 
selves, and  they  soon  becom.e  intelligent  and  agreeable 
readers. 

If  spelling  be  taught  orally  at  all,  it  should  be  con- 
fined, in  primary  classes,  to  the  words  of  the  reading 
lessons,  and  should  invariably  be  combined  with  written 
exercises  on  the  same  words  (see  page  22).  Some 
teachers  prefer  to  use  oral  as  well  as  written  exercises  in 
spelling,  claiming  that  the  former  assists  some  children 
to    remember    the    words    they    have    learned.      It    also 


McGUFFEY'S  FIRST  READER.  49 

assists  in  articulation,  by  requiring  the  child  to  name  the 
letter  and  then  give  it  its  proper  sound. 

Word  building,  as  suggested  on  page  59,  should  be 
begun  as  soon  as  possible  ;  and,  after  some  progress  has 
been  made,  it  will  be  found  interesting  to  the  children 
to  write  the  thoughts  in  a  lesson,  sentence  by  sentence, 
in  their  own  words.  This  is  a  capital  exercise,  as  it 
soon  teaches  a  child  to  use  his  vocabulary  properly,  and 
to  discover  the  expression  through  the  thought. 

When  the  class  is  far  enough  advanced  to  have  the 
reading  lesson  assigned  for  study  before  recitation,  call 
attention  to  such  points  as  will  be  likely  to  excite 
curiosity  and  interest.  It  is  unwise  to  read  the  lesson  in 
full,  as  is  sometimes  done.  The  children  should  be  left 
to  do  as  much  work  as  possible  for  themselves.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say,  perhaps,  that  there  should  be  a 
daily  review  of  each  lesson  of  the  preceding  day. 

The  detailed  instructions  for  Lessons  I  and  II  are  pre- 
sumed to  be  a  sufficient  guide  for  succeeding  lessons. 
In  the  latter,  therefore,  attention  is  called  merely  to 
those  points  which  demand  particular  instruction. 

The  "General  Remarks,"  Chapter  V,  apply  equally 
to  Primer  and  First  Reader,  and,  usually,  to  the  Phonic 
as  well  as  to  the  Combined  Method.  They  should  be 
read  before  commencing  work  on  the  first  reading  lesson, 
whether  it  be  in  the  Primer  or  the  First  Reader. 

Lessons  III,  IV,  V. — Nothing  demanding  especial 
attention  is  met  with  in  Lessons  III  and  IV.  In  Les- 
son V,  there  is  a  new  sound  of  c  and  a  new  sound  of 
s.  Call  the  attention  of  the  children  to  the  short  sound 
of  e,  as  m.  pen,  Lesson  III,  and  contrast  it  with  the  long 
sound  of  e,  as  in  see.  Compare  the  sound  of  s^  in  see^ 
with  the  sound  of  s,  in  is,  Lesson  II. 

E.  M.-5. 


50  READING. 

Here,  also,  we  have  two  words  containing  silent  let- 
ters,— Ann  and  see.  These  should  be  explained  in  very 
simple  language.  Tell  the  children  that  Ann  is  pro- 
nounced just  as  though  it  were  printed  An^  and  see  just 
as  though  it  were  printed  se.  Illustrate  by  writing  the 
two  words  on  the  board  as  they  are  properly  spelled, 
and  then  cancel  the  silent  letters  by  drawing  a  line 
through  them. 

The  digraph  eJi  should  be  taught  as  one  element,  and 
we  may  give  this  instruction  generally  in  regard  to  all 
digraphs.  Also,  wherever  a  new  sound  of  a  letter  is 
met  with,  whether  vowel  or  consonant,  it  should  invari- 
ably be  contrasted  with  the  sound  or  sounds  of  the 
letter  previously  studied ;  and  in  making  these  com- 
parisons, the  letters,  with  their  diacritical  mai'ks^  should 
always  be  written  or  printed  on  the  board.  In  this 
way,  the  children  will  soon  become  familiar  with  the 
force  of  the  diacritical  marks. 

The  exclamation  point  is  first  met  in  Lesson  V.  Call 
attention  to  it,   and  teach  its  meaning. 

Lesson  VI. — There  are  three  digraphs  in  the  vocabu- 
lary. Double  0  long  has  its  peculiar  sound,  differing 
from  simple  o  long.  It  will  not  do  to  treat  it,  therefore, 
as  we  did  double  e  in  Lesson  V,  where  practically  one  e 
is  silent  and  the  other  has  the  identical  sound  of  long  e. 

For  the  combination  ozi\  here  and  in  all  other  cases, 
see  "Suggestions  to  Teachers,"  page  2  of  McGuffey's 
Revised  First  Eclectic  Reader. 

Lesson  VII. — The  silent  g,  in  eggs,  affords  oppor- 
tunity to  review  the  instructions  on  this  point,  and  to 
test  the  understanding  of  the  class. 

Lesson  IX.- — This  is  the  first  review  lesson,  and 
should    receive    careful    attention.      All    the    words   em- 


McGUFFEY'S   FIRST  READER.  5  I 

ployed  have  been  giv^en  in  preceding  vocabularies.  This 
is  true  of  every  review  lesson  in  the  book.  Hesitation, 
therefore,  on  the  part  of  any  considerable  number  of  the 
class,  on  a  review,  indicates  a  fault  somewhere.  Either 
work  has  been  pushed  too  rapidly,  or  some  one  lesson, 
perhaps,  has  not  been  thoroughly  mastered.  A  little 
careful  investigation  will  generally  reveal  the  trouble, 
and  the  defect  can  be  remedied,  and  should  be,  before 
proceeding  with  the  next  series  of   lessons. 

Lesson  XI. — By  the  time  the  class  has  finished  this 
lesson,  they  have  met  with  all  the  small  letters  of  the 
alphabet  except  q  and  z.  As  these  two  letters  are  but 
little  used,  and  are  introduced  very  much  later  in  the 
book,  it  is  suggested  that  at  this  point  a  thorough 
review  be  given  of  the  alphabets,  large  and  small,  printed 
and  script,  excepting  these  two  letters.  If  the  teacher 
so  prefers,  these  two  letters  may  also  be  taught  in  con- 
nection with  this  lesson,  which  is  quite  a  simple  one. 
If  the  class  has  previously  studied  the  Primer,  of  course 
this  review  cf  the  alphabets  will  be  unnecessary. 

Lesson  XI I. — Kitty  is  the  first  word  of  two  syllables 
in  this  book.  The  accent  should  be  explained  and  vocal 
illustration  given.  The  combination  ng  is  rather  difficult 
and  needs  especial  care. 

Lesson  XIII. — Explain  in  simple  language  the  use  of 
the  ' s  as  denoting  possession.      Drill  carefully  on  ;/. 

Lessons  XVII  and  XVIII. — The  lessons  are  intended 
as  especial  drills  on  script.  They  should  be  iviittcn  by 
each  member  of  the  class  as  well  as  read.  This  instruc- 
tion applies  to  similar  lessons  throughout  the  book. 

Lesson  XIX. — The  sound  of  i\  is  the  most  commonly 
mispronounced  of  all  the  a  sounds,  and  the  error  is 
quite    common,    even  among   the  best   educated   classes. 


52  READING. 

Many  who  know  better  give  it  the  wrong  sound  through 
the  force  of  habit  and  association,  and  the  lack  of  early 
training.  The  error  lies  in  giving  a  as  though  it  were  a. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  extremely  broad  a,  as  in  fall, 
should  be  avoided.  The  word  is  neither  pronounced 
gi'dss,   nor  grass,   but  grass. 

It  would  be  well  to  make  a  list  of  the  words  contain- 
ing this  sound  of  a  as  the  class  meets  them,  and  give  a 
special  drill  on  it  from  time  to  time. 

Lesson  XXI. — Here  we  have  a  very  unusual  substitu- 
tion of  e  for  1  in  the  word  pretty,  which  is  frequently 
mispronounced  pret'ty  in  place  of  prit'ty. 

Lesson  XXIV. — Teach  in  simple  language  the  use  of 
the  hyphen  at  the  end  of  the  first    line  of  this   lesson. 

Lesson  XXV. — The  combination  ai  is  not  recognized 
as  a  substitute  for  e.  The  word  said  is  therefore  re- 
spelled  in  order  to  give  its  proper  pronunciation.  Teach 
the  use  of  the  quotation  marks,  which  are  here  intro- 
duced. 

Lesson  XXVIII. — The  word  cajit  presents  two  diffi- 
culties,— its  pronunciation  and  the  mark  of  abbrevia- 
tion. 

While  the  word  caji  has  the  short  a,  it  will  be  noticed 
that  in  ca7it  the  a  is  pronounced  like  a  in  farm.  The 
proper  pronunciation  should  be  insisted  upon  as  often 
as  the  word  is  used  by  a  pupil  in  the  teacher's 
presence. 

To  explain  the  abbreviation  mark,  write  the  words 
"can  not"  on  the  board;  then  rub  out  the  7io  of  not, 
and  write  the  apostrophe  in  their  place,  explaining  that 
it  stands  for  the  omitted  letters.  Test  the  class  in  the 
use  of  the  hyphen  in  the  line  next  to  the  last  in  the 
lesson. 


McGUFFEY'S  FIRST  READER.  53 

Lesson  XXX. — The  word  wont  is  a  peculiar  contrac- 
tion of  "will  not"  or  **woll  not"  used  colloquially. 
In  New  England  it  is  sometimes  pronounced  as  though 
spelled  wimt.  A  full  explanation  of  the  derivation  of 
the  word  would  probably  not  be  understood  by  young 
children.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  explain  that  the  apos- 
trophe stands  for  an  omitted  o,  in  the  word  not,  which 
helps  form  the  compound.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
quotation  marks  in  this  lesson  are  used  to  indicate  a  con- 
tinued conversation,  differing  from  previous  cases  in  the 
omission  of  tire  person  relating  the  conversation.  See 
that  the  children  understand  that  two  persons  are  speak- 
ing, and  when  one  ceases  and  the  other  begins. 

Lesson  XXXI. — The  past  tenses,  called  and  jnmpcdy 
are  the  first  words  of  their  form  that  are  presented. 
They  may  be  mistaken  for  words  of  two  syllables. 
Teach  that  the  e  in  both  words  is  silent.  Attention 
should  be  called  to  a  new  use  of  the  capital  letter  at  the 
beginning  of  a  quotation,  as  in  paragraph  seven:  *'Kate 
said,  '  Good  old  Ponto  ! '  "  Heretofore  the  capital  has 
been  used  only  as  the  initial  letter  of  a  proper  name 
and  of  the  first  word  of  a  sentence. 

Lesson  XXXII. — ^The  word  says  is  respelled,  since  ay 
is  not  recognized  as  a  substitute  for  e.  The  letter  z  is 
first  presented  in  this  respelling.  If  it  causes  any  diffi- 
culty,   substitute  5  for  z,   thus :   ses. 

Lesson  XXXV. — Test  the  knowledge  of  the  class  on 
the  use  of  the  apostrophe  in  Fve.  If  no  one  can  tell 
for  what  letters  it  stands,  write  the  words  '*I  have"  on 
the  board,  and  have  some  pupil  erase  the  proper  letters 
without  prompting.  Assign  compositions  in  which  the 
children  are  to  use  the  abbreviations  Fve^  I'll,  /V, 
/';;/,   etc. 


54  READING. 

Lesson  XXXVI. — This  lesson  presents  another  word 
requiring  respelling  in  order  to  show  its  proper  pronun- 
ciation.     Been  is  often  improperly  pronounced  ben. 

Lesson  XXXVII. — The  word  one  needs  particular 
attention.  The  main  difficulty  with  these  words  of 
arbitrary  pronunciation  is  in  the  spelling,  but  if  the  daily 
writing  exercises  are  conducted  in  the  manner  we  have 
advised,  they  soon  become  fixed  in  the  memory,  and 
present  little  trouble. 

Lesson  XXXVIII. — Be  careful  about  the  word  has' - 
ket ;  it  is  generally  mispronounced  bds'ket  or  has' kit. 

Lesson  XXXIX. — In  the  second  line  of  this  lesson  we 
have  the  compound  word  easy-chair.  Its  component 
parts  only  are  given  in  the  vocabulary.  Call  attention  to 
this  use  of  the  hyphen,  and  illustrate  with  other  words 
on  the  blackboard  ;  for  example,  market-basket,  derived 
from  the  preceding  lesson. 

Lesson  XL. — See  that  the  quotation  marks  in  this 
lesson  do  not  lead  to  confusion  as  to  who  is  speaking. 
The  mother  is  speaking  throughout  the  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  paragraphs.  The  laws  of  punctuation  require 
that  quotation  marks  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  each  of  these  paragraphs,  but  at  the  close  of  the  last 
one  only.  The  danger  is  that  the  young  child  may 
imagine  that  the  person  speaking  changes  with  each  par- 
agraph, and  confusion  naturally  follows. 

This  lesson  affords  a  good  opportunity  for  the  teacher 
to  test  the  thinking  power  of  the  children.  This  should 
be  done  by  pertinent  and  searching  questions. 

Lesson  XLIII. — In  this  lesson  is  presented  an  ex- 
cellent drill  on  the  different  sounds  of  a.  In  the  fifth 
line,  "At  half  past  eight,"  we  have  first  a  in  at,  then  a 
in   half,    a   in  past,    and   e,    a  substitute  for  a,   in  eight. 


McGUFFEY'S  FIRST  READER.  55 

Drill    on    this    phrase,    and    see    that    the    four    distinct 
sounds  of  a  arc  clearly  given. 

Test  the  class  in  the  use  of  the  hyphen  in  line  six  of 
page  58.  The  words  bed  and  time  have  been  given  sep- 
arately in  Lessons  XXIV  and  XXIX. 

Lesson  XLIX. — See  that  often  is  pronounced  of'n. 
Both  the  t  and  the  e  are  silent. 

Lesson  XLVIII. — The  letter  q  is  here  introduced, 
completing  the  alphabet.  Teach  that  q  is  always  fol- 
lowed by  21 ;  the  combination  has  two  sounds:  that  of 
kw,   as  in  quiet,  and  that  of  simple  k,   as  in  pique. 

Lesson  XLIX. — Teach  that  underscored  words  in 
writing  mean  the  same  thing  as  words  printed  in  italics; 
that  is,  both  are  to  be  emphasized  in  reading.  By 
careful  "thought  questions"  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
the  children  can  be  led  to  discover  the  proper  word  or 
phrase  to  be  emphasized. 

Lesson  L. — Laugh' ing  is  rarely  pronounced  properly, 
the  a  being  given  generally  as  a  prolonged  sound  of 
short  a ;  as,  Id-d-df'ing,  or  like  a.  Have  it  pronounced 
like  a  in  father.  Illustrate  by  pronouncing  the  two 
words  a  number  of  times  alternately,  dwelling  a  little  on 
the  a  in  each  case  to  impress  the  sound. 

Lesson  LV. — The  word  again  is  commonly  mispro- 
nounced. "Poetic  license"  is  frequently  taken  with  it, 
even  by  many  of  the  leading  poets.  Nevertheless,  the 
only  proper  pronunciation  of  the  word  is  agen' .  It 
should  never  be  pronounced  agan' . 

Lesson  LVI. — The  seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn, 
and  winter  are  frequently  written  incorrectly  with  a 
capital.  The  opportunity  for  teaching  the  proper 
method  occurs  in  correcting  the  writing  exercise  accom- 
panying this  lesson.      Do  not  teach  or  even  say  what  the 


56  READING. 

wrong  form  is,  but  if  any  pupil  writes  spiing  with  a 
capital,   call  him  up  quietly  and  point  out  his  error. 

Lesson  LVII. — Call  attention  to  the  difference  be- 
tween the  spelling,  pronunciation,  and  meaning  of  of 
and  off. 

Lesson  LIX. — Here  we  have  the  unusual  occurrence 
of  two  silent  letters  in  one  syllable,  making  whistle  a 
little  difficult  to  spell. 

Lesson  LXIL — Really  is  the  first  word  of  three  sylla- 
bles presented  to  the  children. 

Lesson  LXIIL — Be  careful  about  the  word  pdr'ents; 
it  is  frequently  mispronounced  pa'rents. 

Phonic  Chart. — The  chart  is  presented  for  the  pur- 
poses of  drill,  and  can  be  used  at  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher  as  time  and  circumstances  dictate.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  the  entire  school,  either  as  a  body  or  in 
separate  classes,  spend  from  three  to  five  minutes  in 
exercising  on  the  elementary  sounds.  It  will  be  time 
well  spent. 


V. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

GREAT  care  must  be  taken  not  to  attempt  too  much 
in  any  one  lesson.  Here  the  teacher  must  be 
guided  by  his  judgment  as  to  the  inteUigence  of  his 
class,  and  no  specific  directions  can  be  laid  down.  In 
general,  we  would  say,  do  not  wait  until  you  see  the 
class  becoming  weary  and  the  interest  flagging.  Stop 
while  all  are  fi-esh  and  zealous.  It  is  much  better  to  err 
on  the  side  of  brevity  than  of  its  opposite. 

It  is  well  to  be  thorough,  and  to  make  sure  of  one 
step  before  taking  another,  but  do  not  make  the  mistake 
of  going  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  dwell  on  one  topic 
or  one  lesson  until  the  children  are  weary  and  disgusted 
with  it. 

Analysis. — If  you  are  using  the  Combined  Method,* 
when  the  class  has  made  some  progress,  say  at  the  end 
of  the  first  review.  Lesson  V  of  the  Primer,  begin  the 
work  of  analyzing  into  their  elementary  sounds  the  words 
already  learned  and  fixed  in  the  mind. 

At  first  this  work  may  prove  quite  difficult,  and  the 
results  discouraging,  but  patience  and  perseverance  will 
accomplish  wonders  in  a  few  lessons  properly  taught, 
and  it  will  be  found  that  children  take  great  interest  in 
this    branch    of   their   study.     The  great   trouble   in   the 


"  The  Phonic  Method  is  synthetic,  and  does  not  admit  of  exer- 
cises under  this  head. 

(-57) 


58  READING. 

teaching  of  Phonics  is  that  many  teachers  are  themselves 
unable  to  do  what  is  required  of  the  children :  they 
adopt  an  unnatural  tone,  and  distort  the  word  under 
study  so  that,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  children  fail  to 
recognize  the  most  familiar  words.  The  teacher,  then, 
should  give  the  subject  careful  attention,  and  not  attempt 
to  teach  a  class  until  he  is  certain  of  his  own  ground. 
If  understood,  the  subject  of  Phonics  is  very  simple  and 
very  easily  taught ;  moreover,  it  is  of  great  assistance  to 
the  child  in  acquiring  new  words,  and  should  therefore 
not  be  neglected. 

We  here  introduce  the  method  of  treating  the  words 
found  in  Lesson  I.  Commence  by  pronouncing  for  the 
class  the  word  cat  rather  slowly,  in  a  perfectly  natural 
tone,  and  with  very  distinct  articulation,  giving  each 
letter  its  full  value.  Ask  the  class  what  the  word  is.  It 
will,  or  should  be,  recognized  at  once.  Pronounce  it 
more  slowly  and  with  the  same  care,  and  have  the  class 
imitate  you.  Repeat  the  word  a  number  of  times,  each 
time  more  slowly  than  before,  the  class  always  imitating 
you,  until  you  have  in  this  manner  separated  the  word 
as  nearly  as  possible  into  the  elementary  sounds  r,  ^,  t. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  the  c  and  t  are  not  slighted, 
and  the  a  prolonged  into  a  drawl,  thus :  c-a-a-a-a-a-t. 
Dwell  equally  on  the  r,  the  a,  and  the  /,  and  insist  on 
the  class  doing  the  same  thing.  Call  up  individuals 
until  you  are  sure  that  all  have  the  idea ;  then  say, 
"Listen  carefully,  children,  while  I  pronounce  the  word 
cat  as  you  have  just  done,  and  see  who  can  give  me  the 
first  sound  that  I  make." 

Pronounce  the  word,  making  almost  an  entire  separa- 
tion between  the  c  and  the  a.  If  all  fail  to  recognize 
it,    give   the  c  sound   alone   and    have    the   class  imitate 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  59 

you.  Follow  the  same  plan  with  the  a  and  /,  and  drill 
until  the  class  is  familiar  with  the  three  elementary 
sounds.  Now  have  the  children  pronounce  the  word 
very  slowly,  as  before,  and  tell  them  that  you  will  write 
on  the  board  the  letters  that  stand  for  the  sounds  as 
they  give  them  ;  then,  as  they  pronounce  c-a-t,  write  the 
word  zvitJi  the  diacritical  viarks.  Reverse  the  process, 
and  have  the  children  give  the  sounds  as  you  write  the 
letters. 

Treat  rat  and  and  in  the  same  way.  The  class  should 
now  be  able  to  give  all  the  elementary  sounds  of  the 
first  lesson.  The  characters  representing  these  sounds 
are  given  in  the  vocabulary  at  the  head  of  the  lesson. 
Drill  the  class  on  these  until  the  characters  and  their 
sounds  are  instantly  associated  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils,  so  that  when  a  sound  is  given  they  can  at  once 
point  out  its  character,  and  when  a  character  is  pointed 
out  they  can  at  once  give  its  sound.  Continue  these 
exercises  throughout  the  book. 

Synthesis. — When  the  children  have  grasped  the 
idea  of  analysis,  and  can  readily  resolve  simple,  familiar 
words  into  their  elementary  sounds,  teach  them  how  to 
reverse  the  process,  and  build  up  new  words  from  the 
sounds  they  have  learned.^  This  will  afford  interesting 
and  profitable  occupation  for  them  at  their  desks.  For 
example,  from  the  elements  given  in  the  first  four  les- 
sons of  the  Primer  can  be  formed  the  following  simple 
words  not  found  in  the  vocabularies:  Mat,  that,  inap^ 
rap,  mad,  had,  Sam,  pat,  than,  nap,  tap,  pad,  ham,  fat^ 
pan,    lap,   sap,   sad,    ram. 


■'^Exercises  in  word-building  may  be  commenced  Lit  once  when 
the  Phonic  Method  is  employed. 


Ou  READING. 

Show  the  children  how  to  build  these  words  in  phonic 
order.  Thus,  the  word  cat  is  given  in  Lesson  I. 
Write  it  on  the  board,  and  have  the  class  pronounce  it. 
Then,  rubbing  out  the  c,  ask:  "Now,  children,  who 
can  tell  me  what  sound  to  make  to  change  cat  to  pat?'' 
Pronounce  the  word  pat  several  times,  giving  the  p 
sound  emphasis,  until  some  of  the  class  indicate  that 
they  recognize  the  sound  necessary  to  make  the 
change.  Select  one  of  the  pupils  to  give  the  sound  of 
/.  When  it  is  given  correctly,  write  both  cat  and  pat 
on  the  board,  at  one  side.  Form  fat  and  that  in  the 
same  way,  and  write  them  in  the  column  under  cat 
and  pat. 

Then,  taking  the  words  i^an,  in  Lesson  II,  and  cap 
and  lad,  in  Lesson  IV,  as  bases,  form  than,  pan,  map, 
nap,  lap,  rap,  tap,  sap,  mad,  pad,  sad,  and  had.  Write 
these  words  on  the  board  in  columns  as  they  are  formed, 
putting  each  under  its  proper  base  word.  The  remain- 
ing words  are  more  difficult,  for  although  the  elements 
forming  them  are  given,  we  find  no  word  in  the  vocabu- 
laries to  take  as  a  basis,  as  we  did  in  forming  the  other 
words.  However,  this  will  not  be  necessary  after  a  few 
lessons,  and  the  children  will  in  time  be  able  to  form 
new  words  without  the  teacher's  assistance.  The  new 
words  thus  formed  must  be  those  which  belong  to  the 
ordinary  vocabulary  of  the  child.  The  children  will 
recognize  them  at  once  as  familiar,  and  will  join  In  the 
exercises  with  zest.  The  spirit  of  competition  as  to  who 
can  make  the  most  new  words  will  arouse  the  interest 
of  the  class,  and  every  new  lesson  will  broaden  the  field, 
so  that  work  in  this  direction  will  never  grow  monot- 
onous. 

Place    the    new   words   formed   in   each   lesson    on   the 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  6 1 

board,  and  have  the  children  use  them  by  combining 
them  into  phrases  and  sentences,  which  should  be 
written  on  their  slates  and  read  aloud. 

Diacritical  Marks. — This  is  the  proper  place  to 
begin  the  study  of  the  diacritical  marks.  They  should 
be  used  in  the  work  of  analysis  every  time  the  teacher 
or  a  pupil  puts  a  word  on  the  board,  and  the  pupils 
should  be  required  to  use  them  in  such  slate  exercises 
as  are  given  them  to  perform  under  this  head. 

The  accurate  knowledge  of  the  power  of  all  the  dia- 
critical marks,  as  well  as  the  mastery  of  all  the  sounds 
of  the  letters  representing  them,  is  necessary  for  the 
intelligent  use  of  the  Dictionary  and  the  acquirement 
of  a  correct  and  elegant  pronunciation. 

Note. — The  elementary  sounds  of  the  EngHsh  language  are  fre- 
quently represented  by  characters  other  than  the  primary  ones 
which  give  them  name  ;  thus,  long  a  is  represented  not  only  by  a, 
but  also  by  e.  A  list  of  the  ordinary  substitutes,  as  recognized  by 
Webster,  will  be  found  on  page  96  of  the  First  Reader;  but  unusual 
substitutes  are  sometimes  encountered  ;  as,  for  example,  e  or  ee  for 
i,  as  seen  in  England  and  been.  Often,  too,  combifiatiojis  of  letters 
are  met  with  which  seem  to  represent  the  elementary  sounds.  On 
examination,  these  combinations  are  frequently  seen  to  consist  of 
the  primary  character,  or  one  of  its  substitutes,  and  silent  letters. 
For  example,  the  only  substitute  given  for  a,  in  the  list  on  page  96, 
is  e ;  but  we  have  the  sound  of  a  in  the/,  sX^igh,  vazh,  gaz^ge, 
br<?ak,  ma/,  ga^l,  boque/,  etc.  If  we  analyze  the  above  combina- 
tions, we  find  that  in  every  instance  either  a  or  e  really  represents 
the  sound,  and  that  the  other  letters  of  the  combination  are  simply 
not  sounded.  We  have  marked  the  silent  letters  in  the  examples 
quoted  by  making  them  italics.  In  boqiiet,  the  second  tt  is  in  com- 
bination with  q  to  form  the  sound  of  k,  and  is  therefore  not  marked 
silent. 

Unusual  substitutes  and  silent  letters  in  combination  are  often 
confusing,  and  for  the  convenience  of  teachers  we  here  insert  a 
table  for  reference,  presenting  a   complete  list   of  the   characters 


62  READING. 

representing  the  elementary  sounds,  both  primary  characters  and 
their  substitutes,  with  Webster's  diacritical  marks,  and  also  the 
ordinary  combinations  of  silent  letters  with  the  various  sounds. 

The  character  or  several  characters  representing  each  sound  are 
italicized,  as  also  are  the  silent  letters  used  in  combination  with 
those  characters.  Other  silent  letters  are  unmarked  in  this  way  to 
avoid  possible  confusion.  Only  one  example  of  each  substitute 
and  combination  is  presented. 

Vowels. 

a,   as   in  h<2te. — Br^(^k,    'Yii\,  g<^z^l,    zait^o,,   may,   feint,   sleigh,  they, 

bouqu^/,  caf^. 
a,  as  in  cat. — Plazd. 
a,  as  in  ask. 

a,  as  in  what. — Substitute  for  6. 
a,   as  in  harm. — Ah,  aunt,  guard,  hearth,  s^geant. 
a,  as  in  ball. — Ha/^1,  groat,  or,  hoKght. 
a,  as  in  care. — Pa/r,  prajer,  bd-ar,  h.eir,  e'er,  th^'re. 
e,  as  in  he. — C^sar,    \ea\Q,    <\uay,    see,   s^/ze,    bekVf,    p^f^^ple,    ^ey, 

machme,  ph_yszque. 
e,  as  in  set. — Any,  said,  says,  ft'ather,  h^zfer,  l^^pard,  iriend,  bz/ry, 

guess. 
e,  as  in  thd're. — Substitute  for  a. 
e,  as  in  ieint. — Substitute  for  a. 
e,  as  in  ^rr. — Earnest,    hauttv^r,  s/r,  w<7rm,  ]ournQy,    hum,  m/rtle, 

Qolonoi,  av^/rdupois. 

Remark. — Webster  makes  a  slight  difference  between  e,  as  in 
err,  and  u,  as  in  bum,  or  y,  as  in  myrtle.  The  e  is  a  compromise 
between  e  and  the  u  or  y  sound  in  the  examples  quoted. 

e  as  in  cafl. — Substitute  for  a. 

i,  as  in  m/ce. — Ais\^,  height,  \ie,  eye,  ch<?/r,  g///de,  sigh,  {\y,  huy. 

i,   as  in   hit. — Btvn,   prt'tty,  sz>ve,  wi?men,  tortoise,  cha.m.ois,  b^/sy, 

g//mea,  mjth. 
1,  as  in  machme. — Substitute  for  e. 
i,  as  in  sir. — Substitute  for  e. 
o.  as  in  f^^ld. — Beau,  ha///boy,  cheva/^.r-de-frise,  fc^am,  yt't'man,  hoe, 

fioor,  sh^wlder,  sew,  low,  owe. 


GENERAL  REMARKS.  6^ 

6,  as  in  n^d. — Wh.'7t,  kn^^'zc'ledge,  ct^ntime,  madem^/selle. 

o,  as  in  w^rm. — Substitute  for  e. 

6,  as  in  s^n. — Substitute  for  u. 

6,  as  in  ox. — Substitute  for  a. 

o,  as  in  t^. — Substitute  for  oo. 

o,  as  in  w^'lf — Substitute  for  ob. 

oo,    as   in    soow. — Rhtv/m,    dr<?w,    can^^,    man^<?«vre,    den^z^^ment, 

gr<7//p,  'Ciixough,  \.o,  two,  rz^de,  rue,  recruit,  ticdouloureux. 
do,  as  in  foot. — Wo\{,  would,  put. 
u,  as  in  cz/'be. — Beauty,  (fudal,  pew,  lieu,  view,  cue,  suit,  you,  ewe. 

Remark. — Care  must  be  taken  not  to  pronounce  u  like  oo.     It 
is  cube,  not  coob ;  tube,  not  toob ;  tune,  not  too'n. 

Xx,  as  in  b//t. — Sc'n,  does,  porpohc,  bWd,  touc\\. 

u,  as  in  b//rn. — Substitute  for  e. 

u,  as  in  rude. — Substitute  for  oo. 

Ti,  as  in  put. — Substitute  for  do. 

y,  as  in  fly. — Substitute  for  i. 

y,  as  in  mjth. — Substitute  for  i. 

y,  as  in  mjrtle. — Substitute  for  e. 

oi,  as  in  hoi\. — Pt'z^nant,  oyster. 

oi,  as  in  \oir. — Substitute  for  wa. 

ou,  as  in  out. — VXough,  owl. 

ow,  as  in  low. — Substitute  for  o. 


Consonants. 

b,  as  in  <^ad. — Bs-be. 

e,  as  in  rat. — Substitute  for  k. 
9,  as  in  ^ede. — Substitute  for  s. 

ch,  as  in  c/iurch. — Ri^///eous,  naz'ure,  ques//on,  n^erone. 
€h,  as  in  r//orus. — Substitute  for  k. 
9h,  as  in  e/iSLise. — Substitute  for  sh. 
d,  as  in  ^/ot. 

Remark. — This  letter  is  nev^er  silent  except  in    Wednesday  and 
handkerchief. 

f,  as  in  ykte. — Phx7s.se,  S7s.pph\re,  drau^^t. 

g,  as  in  ^et. — Ghost. 


64  READING, 

g^  as  in  ^em. — Substitute  for  j. 

gs. — This  combination  is  represented  by  5,  as  in  exist. 

h,  as  in  ht. —  Who. 

hw. — This  combination  is  represented  by  wh,  as  in  ivhdX. 

j,  as  in  /ack. — 6^em,  ra^^,  sol^/er. 

k,  as  in  /^ite. —  Cat,  <://orus,  si^^,  Tcaixqiie,  \iotigh. 

ks. — The  combination  is  represented  by  x,  as  in  expect. 

kw. — This  combination  is  represented  by  qu,  as  in  guQ^n. —  C//oir. 

1,  as  in  /ight. — Fe//. 

m,  as  in  wore. 

n,  as  in  nine. — Kneo.. 

n,  as  in  Yuig&x. — U«cle,  li«k. 

ng,  as  in  si;z^er. — Bri;/^. 

fi,  as  in  canon  (Spanish). — Substitute  for  (n)  y. 

p,  as  in  pup. — Wiccough,  di//zthong. 

q  is  always  followed  by  u,  and  the  combination  qu  is  a  substitute 

for  kw  or  for  k,  as  qiieen,  anti^/^e. 
r,  as  in  red. — Ore,  wrong,  poorer. 

Remark. — The  middle  r  oi  poorer  has  a  double  sound. 

s,  as  in  i-ame. —  Cede,  tra^^,  chin/s". 
§,  as  in  wa^;. — Substitute  for  z. 

sh,  as  in  shvX. — Oceanic,  A.fia,  nego/iation,  or^an,  so<:zal,  nauj^ous, 

tenjzbn,  pa//ent,  nq.i:zbus,  jure,  pa^f^ion,  lu,rz/ry,  (f/zaise,  conjd- 

entious,  coni-^/ence. 
t,  as  in  /one. — Hiss^^,    77zomas,  phthisic. 
th,  as  in  Ming. 
th,  as  in  With. — Eistert'^fod. 
V,  as  in  z/ane. — Lea7/<?,  of,  Sttphtn. 
w,  as  in  wet — Assz^age, 
wh  =  hw,  as  in  whdX. 
X  =  ks,  as  in  expect. 
3^  =  gs,  as  in  ^,rist. 

y,  as  in  yon. — Famil/ar,  halleluyah,  canon, 
z,    as   in   ^-one. — Way,    s^ys,    cloth-^i",  muj-<?,  sacrifi<r<?,   di.yrern,  xan- 

thic. 
zh. — These  letters  are  never  written  together,  but  the  sound  of  the 

combination  is  heard  in  asure,  menagerie,  bi/bu,  rouge,  measure, 

transi//on. 


GENERAL  REMARKS.  65 

Note. — Some  words  differ  so  radically  in  their  written  charac- 
ters, and  the  sounds  which  compose  them,  that  their  pronunciation 
can  be  indicated  most  readily  by  respelling  them  :  as,  for  exam- 
ple, once  {wiins).  Words  of  this  class  are  therefore  respelled  in 
the  vocabularies  of  the  Readers. 

Script  Exercises. — In  copying  the  script  exercises, 
and  also  in  writing  the  regular  reading  lessons,  see  that 
tlie  children  use  capital  letters  wherever  they  appear  in 
the  books,  and  that  they  insert  the  proper  punctuation 
marks.  It  is  a  mistake  to  allow  young  children  to 
write  without  attention  to  both  these  points.  If  they 
are  required  to  observe  them  from  the  beginning,  the 
rules  governing  them  will  be  readily  understood  when 
the  proper  time  comes  to  study  them. 

Capital  Letters. — The  rules  for  capital  letters  are 
simple,  and  the  principal  ones  should  be  taught  orally 
early  in  the  course.  See  Harvey's  Revised  English 
Grammar,  pages  14-17,  Rules  I,  IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  IX, 
X,   XI,   and  XV. 

Punctuation. — The  subject  of  Punctuation  is  a  very 
difficult  one  to  understand  in  all  its  bearings,  and  no 
attempt  should  be  made  to  teach -'its  formal  rules  in 
primary  classes.  A  few  of  the  marks,  such  as  the 
period,  interrogation  point,  exclamation  point,  hyphen, 
and  quotation  marks  should  be  explained  briefly,  and  in 
simple  language,  as  they  are  met  with  in  the  text.  The 
semicolon  and  comma,  especially  the  latter,  involve 
many  rules,  exceptions,  and  exceptions  to  exceptions. 
The  consequent  complications  are  understood  by  very 
few  teachers,  and  it  is  absurd  to  try  to  teach  them  to 
little  children.  It  is  sufficient  to  answer,  should  the 
children  ask  what  they  mean,  that  they  are  marks  used 
to  help  us  understand  the  meaning  of   the  writer. 

E,  M.-6. 


66  READING. 

Many  teachers  seem  to  have  no  idea  that  this  is  the 
purpose,  and  the  only  purpose,  of  punctuation.  They 
seem  to  think  that  the  various  marks  are  used  to  indicate 
rhetorical  pauses,  and  make  the  children  pause  and 
count  one  for  a  comma,  two  for  a  semicolon,  three  for  a 
colon,  and  four  for  a  period.  It  would  be  just  as  sensi- 
ble if  they  continued  the  "system,"  and  counted  five 
for  an  interrogation  mark  and  six  for  an  exclamation 
point.  This  counting  is  not  only  ridiculous,  but  it  aids 
to  defeat  the  very  object  of  the  reading  lesson.  It  dis- 
tracts the  child  in  his  endeavor  to  grasp  the  meaning  of 
the  sentence  he  is  reading ;  whereas,  he  should  be  left 
perfectly  free  to  concentrate  his  mind  on  this  one  point, 
and  when  he  does  get  the  meaning  of  the  sentence 
clearly,  its  proper  expression  will  follow  naturally  with- 
out artificial  aids. 

Constant  attention  should  be  paid  to  articulation  and 
pronunciation.  Do  not  allow  a  child  to  say/<?^  ior  fast, 
goen  for  going,  agin  or  agan  for  again  {ageii),  etc. 
Daily  drill  on  the  Phonic  Chart  (pages  95  and  96  of 
McGuffey's  Revised  First  Reader)  will  accomplish  more 
in  this  direction  than  many  teachers  seem  to  imagine. 
This  exercise  need  not  take  more  than  from  five  to  ten 
minutes  of  each  day,  and  the  entire  school  may  be 
drilled  together.  Only  one  or  two  sounds  should  be 
studied  at  a  time. 

Do  not  carry  preciseness  in  articulation  and  pronunci- 
ation to  the  extreme  of  interfering  with  a  child  in  his 
endeavor  to  grasp  the  thought  of  what  he  is  reading, 
however,  for  the  latter  is  the  important  aim,  and  should 
take  precedence  of  all  others.  If  a  child  makes  an 
error  in  articulation  or  pronunciation  while  reading,  do 
not   interrupt   him    yourself,    or  allow  him   to   be   inter- 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  6/ 

rupted  by  other  pupils,  until  he  has  finished;  then  call 
his  attention  to  the  mispronounced  word,  and  have  him 
give   it  correctly. 

Correct  all  errors  the  children  make  in  pronunciation 
in  all  conversational  exercises.  To  pronounce  correctly 
is  of  even  greater  importance  than  to  spell  well,  for 
where  one  word  is  written  many  are  uttered  in  conversa- 
tion. A  correct  pronunciation  is  counted  as  a  mark  of 
culture. 

If  the  class  shows  a  tendency  to  read  in  a  monotonous 
manner  or  in  an  unnatural  tone,  have  the  books  closed, 
and  set  the  children  to  talking  about  the  lesson.  Lead 
them  to  express  a  sentence  in  the  words  of  the  book ; 
then  have  the  same  sentence  read  from  the  book.  In 
this  way,  the  children  may  be  led  to  see  for  themselves 
the  difference  between  a  natural  and  an  unnatural  man- 
ner of  reading. 

Where  the  Combined  Method  is  employed,  the  use 
of  the  illustrations  in  the  language  lessons  preliminary 
to  a  reading  lesson  should  be  continued  until  the  chil- 
dren have  acquired  the  faculty  of  associating  new  words 
and  the  ideas  they  represent  without  such  aid.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  continue  this  method  after  it  has  ceased  to 
be  necessary,  as  it  then  retards  rather  than  assists.  Just 
when  the  method  should  be  dropped,  depends  largely 
upon  the  intelligence  of  the  class,  and  each  teacher 
must  use  his  own  judgment  in  the  matter. 

It  is  probable  that  you  will  find  some  pupils  in  the 
primary  classes  who  have  already  had  some  instruction 
in  reading  by  the  alphabet  or  spelling  method.  These 
will  be  very  apt  to  stop  in  their  reading  to  spell  doubtful 
words.  This  should  be  stopped  at  once.  Neither 
should  a  child  be  allowed  to  guess  at  a  word.      Both  of 


68  READING. 

these  faults  show  plainly  that  the  word  recalls  no  definite 
idea  to  the  child's  mind  ;  that  is,  that  the  idea  and  its 
symbol  are  not  instantly  associated,  as  the  fundamental 
principles  of  all  correct  methods  demand  that  they 
should  be. 

Before  the  children  are  called  upon  to  read  the  lesson, 
the  teacher  should  have  reasonable  assurance  that  the 
new  words  have  been  studied  by  the  children.  This  is 
necessary  to  avoid  hesitation,  and  hesitation  is  the 
source  of  many  bad  habits. 


VT. 

McGUFFEY'S  READERS.— CONCLUDED, 


McGuffey's  Second  Reader. 

WITH  the  completion  of  the  Primer  and  First 
Reader,  the  children  have  acquired  a  vocabu- 
lary of  more  than  seven  hundred  words ;  and  if  the  drill 
on  phonics  has  received  proper  attention,  they  should 
be  able  to  read  new  matter  composed  of  simple  words, 
with  little  hesitation.  In  the  Second  Reader,  therefore, 
another  feature  is  introduced.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
each  lesson  is  in  itself  instructive,  either  intellectually  or 
morally.  The  domestic  virtues,  morals  and  manners, 
letter-writing,  natural  history,  and  physics,  receive  much 
attention,  and  open  a  wide  and  very  interesting  field  for 
object  lessons  and  original  compositions.  The  intelli- 
gent and  conscientious  teacher  will  not  neglect  the 
opportunities  afforded  for  imparting  much  useful  infor- 
mation in  connection  with  these  lessons ;  but  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  first  object  is  to  lead  the  chil- 
dren to  think  for  themselves,  and  to  produce  as  much 
original  work  as  possible.  This  work  should  then  be 
supplemented  by  the  teacher:  wrong  ideas  should  be 
carefully  corrected,  and  such  additional  instruction  given 
as  the  teacher  may  think  within  the  understanding  of 
the  class.  Care  must  be  taken  as  to  the  last  point. 
Keep  on  the  safe  side,  and  never  talk  "over  the  heads" 

(69) 


70  READING. 

of  the  little  ones,  otherwise  your  time  is  thrown  away, 
and  interest  is  lost. 

The  same  attention  should  be  given  to  phonics  and 
the  diacritical  marks  as  heretofore,  and  to  articulation, 
expression,  and  the  daily  writing  of  a  portion  of  the 
reading  lesson.  Paper  and  lead  pencil,  or  pen,  may  be 
introduced  in  place  of  the  slate.  The  teacher  who  con- 
tinues these  writing  lessons  as  suggested,  will  be  well 
repaid  in  finding  that  the  class  fall  naturally  into  the 
proper  spelling  of  words,  and  the  proper  use  of  capitals 
and  the  various  punctuation  marks,  without  special  drill 
upon  these  subjects.  Then,  as  before  stated,  when  the 
proper  time  comes  to  study  the  formal  rules,  they  will 
be  readily   understood  and  remembered. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  teacher,  in  drilling  on  pronun- 
ciation, write  each  day's  vocabulary  on  the  board,  with 
the  proper  syllabication,  diacritical  marks,  and  accentua- 
tion, and  have  each  word  pronounced  by  the  class  in 
concert  and  indi.vidually,  distinctly  and  correctly.  After 
a  short  drill  of  this  nature,  write  the  words  without  divi- 
sion into  syllables,  and  without  diacritical  marks  or 
accents,  and  again  have  the  words  pronounced  as  before. 

The  teacher  should  always  explain  to  the  class  the 
meaning  of  any  words  which  he  thinks  may  possibly  be 
misunderstood  before  assigning  an  advance  lesson  to  be 
studied,  and  the  class  should  be  carefully  questioned  on 
these  words  when  the  lesson  is  recited.  Making  sen- 
tences from  given  words  is  a  valuable  exercise  to  secure 
the  proper  use  of  words.  .  It  is  a  good  test  of  the  child's 
comprehension  of  their  exact  meaning. 

Lesson  I. — The  abbreviations  Mi\  and  Mrs.  are  intro- 
duced in  this  lesson.  As  suggested  in  the  preface,  these 
should  be  carefull}-  explained,  not  only  as  to  their  mean- 


McGUFFEY'S  SECOND   READER.  /I 

ing  and  use,  but  as  to  the  reason  for  their  use.  Write 
the  words  Mister  and  Mistress  on  the  board;  explain 
that  the  latter  came  in  time  to  be  shortened  to  Missis, 
and  that  it  is  now  customary  to  write  Mister,  Mr.; 
and  Missis,   Mfs. 

Lesson  II. — This  lesson  will  afford  a  good  opportunity 
for  an  object  lesson  on  the  various  colors.  The  teacher 
should  provide  himself  with  a  prism,  and,  if  it  is  a 
bright  sunshiny  day,  throw  the  colors  on  the  wall,  where 
they  can  be  pointed  out.  He  should  also  have  a  small 
brush,  and  the  water-colors  red,  blue  and  yellow ;  then, 
by  mixing  red  and  blue,  blue  and  yellow,  and  yellow 
and  red,  he  should  illustrate  how  the  secondary  colors, 
violet,  green,  and  orange,  are  formed.  Teach  that  the 
absence  of  all  color  makes  an  object  black,  and  that 
when  all  the  colors  are  combined  in  proper  proportions 
they  produce  white. 

Note. — A  very  interesting  and  simple  experiment  will  illustrate 
this.  Cut  out  a  circle  of  card-board,  and  paint  the  seven  colors  of 
the  spectrum,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet 
upon  it,  in  their  order,  giving  each  color  the  same  space  proportion- 
ally that  it  occupies  in  the  spectrum  formed  by  the  prism.  Bore 
two  small  holes  either  side  of  the  center ;  insert  a  string  through 
these;  twist  the  string  into  a  spiral ;  and  then,  by  alternately  pulling 
and  relaxing  it,  cause  the  card  to  revolve  back  and  forth  as  a  boy 
does  his  miniature  circular  saw.  When  the  card  is  in  rapid  motion, 
the  colors  blend  and  the  card  appears  nearly  white  [the  imperfec- 
tion of  the  several  colors  prevents  absolute  purity]  ;  when  it  stops, 
the  colors  re-appear. 

Several  other  experiments  may  be  found  in  almost 
any  good  book  on  Physics  or  on  Object  Lessons  which 
will  serve  to  interest  the  class,  and  at  the  same  time 
give  valuable  information. 


72  READING. 

Teach  that  complementary  colors  are  any  two  colors 
which,  combined,  will  produce  white ;  thus,  green  and 
red,  blue  and  orange,  violet  and  yellowish  green,  violet 
and  orange  yellow  are  complementary  colors;  that  is, 
the  one  complements  or  fills  out  what  is  lacking  in  the 
other  to  make  white. 

Lesson  III. — Have  this  letter  copied  on  slate  or 
paper.  It  may  be  used  as  a  guide  for  future  lessons  on 
letter-writing.  By  the  time  they  are  ready  to  leave  the 
common  school,  the  children  should  know  how  to  ex- 
press themselves  naturally,  clearly,  and  concisely  in 
either  a  business  or  a  friendly  letter.  Letter-writing  in 
its  perfection  is  a  rare  art  attained  by  few,  but  children 
can  not  begin  at  too  early  an  age  to  learn  its  rudiments, 
and  few  things  that  they  learn  in  the  school-room  will 
prove  of  greater  practical  utility  in  their  after  lives. 
Teach  them  gradually  how  to  date  a  letter  properly,  and 
why  it  should  always  be  dated ;  where  and  how  to  write 
the  various  proper  forms  of  introduction ;  to  arrange  the 
various  topics  about  which  they  are  to  write  in  order, 
and  to  commence  each  new  topic  with  a  separate  para- 
graph ;  where  and  how  to  write  the  various  proper 
forms  of  conclusion  and  signature ;  how  to  fold  a  letter 
properly ;  how  to  insert  it  in  the  envelope  properly ; 
how  to  direct  the  envelope  properly ;  where  to  place 
the  stamp,   and  when  to  use  more  than  one  stamp. 

A  good  exercise  for  the  children  is  to  change  any  of 
the  lessons,  or  parts  of  them,  into  the  form  of  a  letter. 
Also,  when  a  child  asks  for  a  particular  favor,  the 
teacher  may  grant  it  if  the  child  will  put  his  request  in 
the  form  of  a  letter. 

The  abbreviation  o  clock,  for  *'of  the  clock,"  should 
be  explained. 


McGUFFEY'S  SECOND   READER.  73 

Lesson  IV. — Stories  about  the  stars  are  almost  as  in- 
teresting to  most  children  as  fairy  tales.  A  judicious 
selection  of  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  simple 
truths  of  Astronomy  should  be  made.  If  opportunity 
offers,  teach  the  school  which  is  the  north  star,  and  how 
to  find  it  by  means  of  the  ''pointers"  in  the  "Great 
Dipper." 

See  that  this  lesson  is  read  naturally.  The  proper 
expression  can  be  attained  only  by  leading  the  children 
to  apprehend  the  true  meaning. 

Lesson  V. — Care  must  be  taken  with  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  mm'utcs  {intn'its)  and  Nezv' found-land.  The  o  in 
the  latter  is  of  course  silent.  The  word  is  often  im- 
properly accented  and  pronounced  New-fownd' land. 

This  is  an  excellent  lesson  to  be  put  in  the  form  of  a 
letter  for  composition  drill. 

Lesson  VI. — In  the  script  exercises  in  this  lesson  and 
elsewhere  in  the  book,  varied  forms  of  the  capital  letters 
are  presented  simply  that  children  may  become  familiar 
with  them  and  recognize  them,  as  they  will  have  to  do 
later  in  life  in  reading  different  styles  of  handwriting. 
To  this  same  end  children  should  be  required  to  read 
each  other's  written  exercises.  Neither  compel  the 
pupils  to  follow  the  exact  forms  in  the  book,  nor  criti- 
cise them  if  they  do.  A  legible,  smooth,  regular,  and 
rapid  handwriting  is  the  point  to  be  aimed  at.  Aside 
from  the  qualities  mentioned,  individual  characteristics 
should  not  be  interfered  with.  Individuality  should  be 
encouraged  rather  than  condemned. 

Lesson  VII. — It  is  not  presumed  that  every  teacher 
of  a  district  school  is  the  possessor  of  a  microscope. 
If,  however,  you  are  so  fortunate  as  to  own  one,  or  can 
borrow  one,   this  lesson   can  be  made  intensely  interest- 

E.  M.-7. 


74  READING. 

ing  and  very  instructive,   and   the  object  lessons  can  be 
extended  to  various  familiar  insects,   plants,   etc. 

Lesson  VIII. — Utilize  this  lesson  by  the  introduction 
of  a  few  striking  and  authentic  stories  illustrating  the 
instinct  of  animals.  Have  the  children  write  and  hand 
in  stories  of  their  own.  A  selection  of  the  best  of 
these  may  be  read  aloud  in  the  class. 

Lessons  XII  and  XIII. — In  regard  to  these  and  similar 
lessons  of  a  moral  nature,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind 
what  is  said  by  Mr.  Sweet  in  his  work  on  teaching: 
**One  of  the  most  effective  ways  of  giving  moral  lessons 
is  through  the  medium  of  well-selected  stories.  *  A 
moral  lesson,'  says  Bain,  'may  be  wrapped  up  in  a  tale 
and  brought  home  with  an  impetus.  Stories  of  great 
and  noble  deeds  have  fired  more  youthful  hearts  with 
enthusiasm  than  sermons  have.'  'To  hear  about  good 
men,'  says  Richter,  *  is  equivalent  to  living  among 
them.  For  children  there  is  absolutely  no  other 
morality  than  example,  either  seen  or  narrated. '  When 
you  read  a  story  or  fable,  let  your  pupils  draw  their 
own  inferences  and  do  their  own  moralizing.  It  is  not 
best  for  you  to  spoil  the  effect  by  drawing  conclu- 
sions." 

Lesson  XXIV. — This  lesson  may  be  made  the  basis 
of  object  lessons  on  the  varied  occupations  of  the 
farmer,  and  on  the  different  kinds  of  cloth,  cotton, 
linen,   etc. 

Lesson  XXV. — Teach  how  the  clouds  are  formed. 
The  rising  mists  of  morning  are  familiar  to  almost  every 
child  who  lives  in  the  country. 

Lesson  XXIX. — See  that  tl'ny  is  properly  pronounced 
as  indicated  by  the  diacritical  marks.  It  is  frequently 
mispronounced  tin'y  or  te'ny. 


McGUFFEY'S    THIRD   READER.  75 

Lesson  XXXIII. — Be  careful  as  to  the  pronunciation 
of  sezi'ing.  There  are  two  verbs,  sew  (su),  which  have  a 
very  different  meaning  from  sew  (so). 

Lesson  XXX  VI. — Against  should  be  pronounced 
a-gensf  and  not  a-ganst' . 

Lesson  XL. — Explain  the  abbreviation  ne'er. 

Lesson  XLII. — See  that  pupils  in  writing  this  lesson 
do  not  use  capitals  in  writing  the  words  summer  and 
autumn.  Tell  the  children  that  this  story  is  an  allegory. 
Explain  in  simple  language  what  an  allegory  is,  and 
what  this  allegory  teaches. 

Lesson  XLVII. — The  word  landscape  will  probably 
need  careful  explanation. 

Lesson  LVIII. — Explain  what  a  dialogue  is.  See 
Webster's  Dictionary.  This  lesson  may  be  memorized 
and  acted  by  two  pupils. 

Lesson  LIX. — Explain  when  did' st  takes  the  place  of 
did,   and  see  that  its  articulation  is  distinct. 

Lesson  LXIII. — Why  are  Spring  and  Winter  spelled 
with  capitals  in  this  lesson?  (Harvey's  Revised  English 
Grammar,  Art.  240,  3). 


McGuffey's  Third  Reader. 

In  this  book,  lessons  of  the  same  instructive  character 
as  those  in  the  Second  Reader  are  continued,  but  the 
thought  is  usually  deeper,  keeping  pace  with  the  de- 
velopment of  the  child's  mind. 

It  is  not  thought  necessary  to  tabulate  new  words  in  a 
vocabulary  beyond  the  middle  of  this  book.  By  this 
time,  the  children  should  be  able  to  pronounce  at  sight 
such  new  words  as  are  introduced.      In  place  of  the  vo- 


76  READING. 

cabularles,  therefore,  definitions  of  the  most  difficult 
words  in  each  lesson  are  given,  with  diacritical  marks  to 
aid  in  pronunciation.  These  definitions  are  necessarily 
not  exhaustive, — that  definition  only  is  given  which  is 
applicable  to  the  word  in  connection  with  the  context. 
The  teacher  should  not  confine  the  class  to  the  words 
defined  in  the  Reader,  but  should  teach  the  class  how 
to  use  the  dictionary,  and  require  pupils  to  consult  it 
in  studying  their  lessons  whenever  a  word  is  encountered, 
the  meaning  of  which  is  not  perfectly  clear. 

As  recommended  in  the  Preface,  there  should  be  a 
daily  drill  on  articulation,  and  exercises  for  this  purpose 
are  presented  in  the  Introduction. 

It  is  thought  unnecessary  to  give  detailed  instructions 
as  to  particular  lessons  in  this  book.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  lessons  furnish  abundant  opportunities  for 
practical  composition  work,  which  should  be  kept  up 
till  the  end.  How  suggestive  for  composition,  for  ex- 
ample, is  Lesson  XXXI. 


McGuffey's  Fourth    Reader. 

Sixteen  pages  of  the  introductory  matter  of  this  book 
are  devoted  to  exercises  in  articulation  and  vocal  culture. 
These  exercises  should  not  be  "gone  over"  once  and 
then  dropped,  but  vocal  culture  should  have  a  place  in 
each  day's  exercises,  A  critic,  in  writing  of  this  point, 
says:  *'  Nearly  all  teachers  in  our  common  schools  teach 
reading,  but  the  training  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  eye. 
Something  is  done  in  expression,  but  it  is  incidental, 
and  few  ever  attempt  any  thing  that  looks  to  the  de- 
velopment   of    the   voice."     While    it    is    not    necessary 


McGUFFEY'S  FOURTH  READER.  yy 

that  a  teacher  himself  should  be  a  skilled  elocutionist  in 
order  to  attempt  such  development,  yet  he  certainly 
should  have  correct  ideas  of  the  vocal  organs  and  of  the 
proper  way  to  train  them.  Murdoch's  Analytic  Elocu- 
tion, which  contains  the  best  method  known  for  this 
purpose,  ought  to  be  studied  by  every  teacher  of  read- 
ing who  is  deficient  in  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  elocu- 
tion. Work  in  the  dark  often  does  more  harm  than 
good,  for  good  reading,  like  good  singing,  becomes  an 
impossibility  with  a  poorly  trained  voice.  Particular  at- 
tention is  directed  to  what  is  said  on  page  250  in  regard 
to  making  reading  a  healthful  exercise. 

Continue  the  plan  recommended  for  the  Third  Reader 
in  regard  to  dictionary  work.  In  this  connection,  the 
study  of  synonyms  should  be  introduced.  Occasionally 
have  the  class  write  the  reading  lesson  of  the  day,  sub- 
stituting synonyms  for  every  word  defined  in  the  book, 
and  for  any  others  that  may  possibly  be  not  fully  under- 
stood. Again,  in  reading  a  lesson,  have  one  pupil  read 
a  sentence,  and  require  another  to  repeat  the  exact  idea 
in  his  own  words.  Carefully  correct  all  sentences  so 
rendered,  whether  written  or  spoken,  which  are  ungram- 
matical,  tautological,  or  otherwise  clumsy  and  ungrace- 
ful. This  study  of  synonyms  will  prove  very  beneficial 
in  extending  the  child's  vocabulary,  and  in  giving  him 
a  good  command  of  language.  It  should  be  continued 
through  all  the  advanced  classes. 

The  questions  at  the  close  of  the  selections,  under 
the  head  of  ''Exercises,"  are  intended  to  be  merely 
suggestive.  The  object  aimed  at  is  to  be  certain  that 
the  children  fully  grasp  the  ideas  of  the  author,  and  also 
to  enforce  attention  on  the  part  of  the  class  to  what  is 
being   read,    and   thus   to   train    the   memory.      A   good 


78  READING. 

exercise  in  the  same  direction  is  to  have  the  books 
closed  after  the  lesson  has  been  carefully  read,  and  then 
have  the  pupils  repeat  the  lesson  in  their  own  words, 
giving  the  substance  of  every  paragraph  as  completely 
as  possible.  If  time  is  too  pressing  to  conduct  this 
exercise  orally,  have  each  member  of  the  class  write  the 
lesson  from  memory.  It  is  not  proposed  to  have  the 
children  memorize  the  exact  words  of  the  author,  but 
to  render  the  exact  ideas  of  the  lesson  as  completely 
as  possible  in  their  own  language. 

Short  biographical  sketches  are  given  of  nearly  every 
author  where  his  name  first  appears  in  the  book.  These 
sketches  may  be  supplemented  by  the  teacher  to  advan- 
tage whenever  he  happens  to  know  any  additional  inter- 
esting facts  in  regard  to  the  lives  or  writings  of  the 
authors. 

Have  the  class  bring  in  short  selections  of  their  own 
choosing  from  the  writings  of  the  most  celebrated 
authors  mentioned,  and  supplement  the  regular  reading 
lesson  from  time  to  time  by  having  these  selections  read 
aloud.  In  this  way  a  taste  for  good  literature  may  be 
cultivated  early  in  life,  and  good  seed  may  be  sown  in 
fertile  soil,  which,  if  neglected,  will  produce  nothing  but 
weeds. 

The  children  in  this  Reader  should  be  required  to  do 
certain  work  in  connection  with  the  reading  lesson  pre- 
paratory to  studying  the  text-book  on  grammar.  They 
may  be  taught  here  to  classify  words.  Have  them  make 
lists  of  the  names  of  objects,  actions  and  quaHties.  Teach 
the  use  of  pronouns  as  substitutes,  and  the  correct  posi- 
tion of  words  and  phrases  in  sentences.  Have  the  chil- 
dren observe  words  so  closely  as  to  be  able  to  tell  what 
they  modify.     Also,  to  classify  sentences  as  to  their  use. 


McGUFFEY'S  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  READERS.  79 

as  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and  exclama- 
tory. This  kind  of  work  ought  to  be  continued  until 
the  children  are  properly  prepared  to  begin  the  formal 
study  of  grammar. 


McGuffey's  Fifth  and  Sixth  Readers. 

In  these  two  books,  the  character  of  the  selections 
again  undergoes  a  decided  change.  In  the  choice  of 
matter  composing  them,  two  objects  dominated :  first,  to 
present  typical  selections  from  the  writings  of  as  many 
of  the  foremost  authors  in  the  English  language  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  second,  to  afford  as  much  good  material  for 
elocutionary  drill  as  possible  within  the  limits  of  a 
school  reader.  The  Sixth  Reader  is  especially  rich  in 
selections  adapted  to  elocutionary  needs ;  it  contains  as 
good  a  selection  as  can  possibly  be  made  for  this  pur- 
pose, and,  in  fact,  is  used  in  many  schools  in  place  of  a 
"Speaker."  Both  books  contain  ample  instructions 
and  exercises  for  vocal  drill  in  their  Introductions,  which 
can  be  and  should  be  used  with  good  effect. 

Biographical  sketches  of  all  the  authors  represented 
are  given  where  the  author's  name  first  appears.  Use 
these  sketches  simply  as  a  basis  or  outline  to  be  filled 
out  in  the  composition  work  of  the  class. 

The  teacher  should  lead  his  pupils,  not  only  to  com- 
prehend the  thought  of  what  he  reads  and  to  give  it 
utterance  in  his  own  words,  but  also  to  observe  and  to 
criticize  intelligently  the  form  of  expression.  The  words 
and  phrases  of  the  text,  as  well  as  the  historical  and 
biographical  notes,  should  be  studied  with  attention. 
The   teacher    himself    should    make   a  careful    study  of 


8o  READING. 

every  selection  in  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Readers,  and 
should  make  marginal  notes  in  his  private  copies  of  the 
books  for  his  own  use,  calling  attention  to  figures  of 
speech,  well  turned  phrases,  examples  of  forcible  and 
beautiful  language,  etc.,  etc.  This  kind  of  work  is 
essential  if  a  teacher  would  make  the  reading  lessons 
useful  as  specimens  of  the  best  English. 

Benjamin  Frankin,  in  his  autobiography,  tells  how  he 
materially  improved  his  style  of  writing,  and  his  exam- 
ple is  well  worthy  of  imitation.  He  used  to  read  a  por- 
tion of  the  ''Spectator"  carefully;  then,  laying  it  aside, 
he  would  try  to  write  what  he  had  read,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  in  the  words  of  the  author.  He  would  then 
compare  his  writing  with  the  original,  and  note  the  dif- 
ferences of  expression.  After  studying  his  errors  care- 
fully, he  would  again  write  the  selection  from  memory, 
and  again  compare  his  production  with  the  original,  and 
so  on,  time  after  time,  until  he  attained  a  satisfactory 
result.  He  pursued  this  plan  until  he  formed  a  most 
excellent  style  of  his  own,  modeled  on  that  of  the  best 
writers  of  the  English  language.  Probably  no  better 
way  of  improving  one's  style  could  be  devised,  and 
Franklin's  plan  would  prove  most  useful  in  the  school- 
room. 

Be  careful  not  to  allow  children  to  copy  what  they 
read.  Make  them  write  from  memory,  compare  with 
the  original,  and  rewrite.  In  these  exercises,  originality 
of  expression  is  not  to  be  condemned,  but  rather 
encouraged,  provided  the  original  expression  is  perfect 
in  all  respects.  At  the  same  time,  awkwardness  of  ex- 
pression, the  wrong  use  of  terms,  redundancy,  omission 
of  words  necessary  to  clearness  or  force,  the  improper 
transposition    of   words   or   phrases,    etc.,    etc.,    may   be 


McGUFFEY'S  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  READERS.  8 1 

pointed  out,  and  thus  the  children  will  rapidly  learn  to 
recognize  what  constitutes  a  good  and  what  a  bad 
style. 

There  is  one  danger  about  composition  work  and  lan- 
guage exercises  which  should  be  carefully  avoided  :  that 
is,  in  the  attempt  to  impart  elegance  to  language,  all 
vigor  and  interest  may  be  smoothed  out  of  the  writing. 
Vigor  and  interest  are  of  vastly  greater  importance  than 
even  grammatical  expression  or  spelling,  and  elegance 
should  be  made  to  take  its  proper  place  as  a  mere  orna- 
ment. It  is  important  only  in  the  sense  that  the  polish 
on  a  piece  of  rich  furniture  is  important ;  and,  as  the 
quality  of  the  wood  is  much  more  to  be  considered  than 
the  finish  which  is  given  it,  so  the  thought  displayed  in 
a  composition  should  receive  more  consideration  than  its 
outward  form. 

Matters  of  weighty  import  should  not  be  lost  sight 
of  in  attention  to  petty  details.  The  proper  place  for 
the  study  of  the  latter  is  in  the  primary  classes  in  com- 
position work.  In  the  higher  classes  they  should  call 
for  no  more  thought  on  the  part  of  a  pupil  than  does 
the  way  he  holds  his  pen. 

Harvey's  Grammar  should  be  used  as  a  book  of  refer- 
ence to  learn  the  correct  use  of  figures  of  speech,  and 
the  dictionary  should  be  constantly  used  to  study  the 
proper  use  and  choice  of  words.  Synonyms  are,  as  a 
rule,  by  no  means  identical  in  meaning,  and  yet  very 
frequently  pupils  are  allowed  to  use  indiscriminately,  as 
though  they  were  identical  in  meaning,  such  words  as 
recollect  and  remember,  inference  and  conclusion,  attacJiment 
and  affection,  attain  and  obtain,  infections  and  contagions, 
etc.,  etc.  The  dictionary  and  the  grammar  should  be 
used  as  books  of  reference  in  connection  with  the  study 


82  READING. 

of  the  reading  lessons  more  than  is  now  the  custom. 
The  proper  kind  of  study  in  this  direction  can  not  fail 
to  impress  upon  pupils  the  value  of  a  good  grammar 
and  a  good  dictionary,  and  the  necessity  of  their  careful 
study  if  accurate  and  elegant  diction  is  ever  to  be  ac- 
quired. 

If  supplementary  reading  be  desired,  you  can  go  into 
no  better  field  of  literature  than  that  of  the  authors 
here  represented.  Encourage  the  pupils  to  read  as 
much  as  possible  at  home,  giving  them  hints  as  to  the 
best  works  of  each  author.  There  is  no  room  for  the 
study  of  English  Literature,  unfortunately,  in  the  ordi- 
nary common  school,  but  if  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Readers 
are  studied  and  used  as  they  should  be,  they  will  go 
very  far  towards  taking  the  place  of  a  regular  text-book 
on  that  subject. 

The  Publishers  realize  that  many  schools  and  many 
homes  are  without  the  books  of  reference  necessary  to  a 
proper  understanding  of  some  of  the  selections,  should 
the  text  alone  be  given.  In  all  cases,  therefore,  where 
it  seemed  there  could  be  a  possible  want  in  this  direc- 
tion, notes  have  been  added  at  the  close  of  selections 
which  give  all  the  information  necessary  for  intelligent 
reading. 


SPELLING 


VII. 

McGUFFEY'S  SPELLING-BOOK. 

Note. — The  teacher  is  referred  to  what  has  been  said  in  regard 
to  this  subject  on  page  22. 

WHILE  the  Spelling-book  is  thought  to  be  use- 
less in  primary  classes,  it  is  on  the  other  hand 
quite  essential  in  the  higher  classes,  even  if  the  only 
object  be  to  give  pupils  the  thorough  command  of  a  sim- 
ple practical  vocabulary ;  for  it  is  not  to  be  presumed 
that  any  one  set  of  Readers  presents  a  complete  list  of 
the  words  which  are  used  in  every-day  life,  or  that  it 
presents  a  sufficient  number  of  words  of  any  particular 
class  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  recognized  easily 
as  a  class,  and  that  the  rule  for  spelling  all  words  of  that 
class  may  thus  be  deduced.  This  is  the  particular  prov- 
ince and  use  of  the  Spelling-book. 

Children  below  the  Fourth  Reader  class  are,  as  a  rule, 
not  old  enough  to  understand  the  laws  which  govern 
Spelling,  or  to  reason  about  the  analogies  of  words ; 
hence,  work  in  spelling,  up  to  this  point,  should  be  con- 
fined to  the  words  included  in  the  reading  lessons  and  in 
the  various  written  exercises.  This  work  is  of  course 
general  in  its  nature,  and  necessarily  without  plan,  ex- 
cept that  the  simpler  words  are  encountered  in  the  read- 
ing lessons  at  an  earlier  period  than  those  which  are 
more  difficult. 

(85) 


86  SPELLING. 

If  the  teacher  has  been  careful  to  correct  all  errors, — 
that  is,  to  accept  nothing  short  of  perfect  spelling  in  all 
written  work, — the  children,  by  the  time  the  Fourth 
Reader  is  reached,  will  have  acquired  a  fair  vocabulary 
of  simple  words,  and  will  be  prepared  to  begin  the  in- 
telligent study  of  the  Spelling-book. 

The  work  now  becomes  specific  in  nature.  Words 
are  to  be  considered  in  certain  well-defined  classes,  and 
carefully  analyzed,  compared,  and  contrasted.  The 
general  laws  of  spelling  and  pronunciation  are  thus  best 
learned  and  remembered,  while  the  peculiarities  of  un- 
usual spellings  and  pronunciations  are  brought  out  and 
impressed  upon  the  mind. 

In  teaching  the  Spelling-book,  have  every  lesson 
'W}itten  as  well  as  spelled  orally.  By  this  plan,  each 
member  of  the  class  is  compelled  to  spell  every  word  of 
the  lesson ;  the  diacritical  marks  are  learned  more  thor- 
oughly and  more  readily ;  and,  finally,  the  children  learn 
how  to  spell  sooner  and  more  accurately  than  they  pos- 
sibly can  do  should  the  work  be  confined  to  oral  spell- 
ing alone. 

If  spelling  exercises  in  addition  to  those  in  the  book 
are  given,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  burden 
the  minds  of  the  children  with  long  lists  of  unusual  and 
difficult  words.  Work  of  this  description  is  time  thrown 
away:  first,  because  the  chances  are  that  the  child  will 
never  have  occasion  in  all  his  life  to  write  these  unusual 
words ;  and  second,  if  he  ever  should  have  occasion  to 
write  them,  after  any  considerable  lapse  of  time,  he 
probably  will  have  entirely  forgotten  how  to  spell  them. 
And,  presuming  that  such  words  are  remembered,  what 
advantage  are  his  spelling  lessons  to  one  who  can  spell 
PJiytelepJias  or   PhtJiisip7teumonia  readily,    but    constantly 


USE  OF  THE  Spelling-book.  Sy 

writes  /oosc,  meaning  /osc\  and  makes  no  distinction  be- 
tween dessert  and  deser-t,  or  bass  and  base,  or  relict  and 
relicy  or  cJioir  and  qiiire?  The  time  of  the  speUing 
lesson  should  be  devoted  especially  to  those  words  which 
are  liable  to  occur  in  ordinary  composition,  and  not  to 
useless  puzzles  in  orthography ;  but  words  occurring  in 
lessons  in  geography,  and  scientific  terms  in  common 
use,  should  be  spelled  in  connection  with  the  recitations. 

In  the  English  language,  difficulties  in  spelling  arise 
chiefly  from  two  causes:  (i)  the  presence  of  silent  let- 
ters, or  letters  whose  sounds  are  not  heard  in  the  spoken 
word,  and  (2)  the  use  of  substitutes,  several  characters 
often  representing  the  same  sound,  and  the  same  char- 
acter often  representing  different  sounds.  (See  pages 
61-65.)  In  order  to  accomplish  effective  work,  words 
should  be  studied  with  especial  reference  to  these  two 
chief  causes  of  difficulty.  The  Eclectic  Spelling-book  is 
particularly  well  adapted  to  the  study  of  these  points. 
All  silent  letters  are  cancelled  by  a  light  line,  and  the 
proper  diacritical  mark  is  given  to  every  letter  that  de- 
mands one.  In  writing  spelling  lessons  and  dictation 
exercises,  children  should  be  required  to  cancel  the 
silent  letters,  and  to  give  each  one  that  is  sounded  its 
proper  diacritical  mark,  as  indicated  in  the  book. 

Each  accented  syllable  also  should  be  marked.  As 
elsewhere  stated,  pronunciation  is  even  more  important 
than  spelling,  since  many  more  words  are  spoken  than 
written.  It  is  in  this  connection  that  oral  spelling  has 
its  chief  value,  and  the  teacher  should  require  that  every 
word  which  is  spelled  orally  should  be  pronounced  prop- 
erly and  distinctly. 

McGufifey's  Eclectic  Spelling-book,  Revised  Edition, 
may  be  divided  to  advantage  into  a  three-years'  course, 


88  SPELLING, 

extending  through  the  Fourth,   Fifth,  and  Sixth  Reader 
classes. 

First  Class. — If  this  plan  be  followed,  the  work  of 
the  First  Class  should  include  the  first  fifty-eight  lessons. 
Begin  with  Lesson  I,  and  drill  on  the  sounds  and 
diacritical  marks.  The  identification  of  the  simple  ele- 
mentary sounds  with  the  characters  that  usually  repre- 
sent them  is  the  first  step  to  be  accomplished,  and 
should  be  mastered  before  even  the  slightest  difficulties 
of  spelling  are  presented.  If  pupils  have  been  drilled 
properly  on  diacritical  marks  in  the  Readers,  the  first 
three  lessons  of  the  Speller  will  require  no  especial 
attention.  In  Lesson  4,  substitutes  and  silent  letters  are 
first  presented.  Gradually  new  sounds,  new  marks,  and 
new  combinations  of  silent  letters  are  introduced,  and, 
by  the  time  the  children  have  finished  Lesson  57,  they 
will  have  been  drilled  upon  all  the  distinctive  diacritical 
marks  used  in  Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary. 

The  remarks  at  the  beginning  of  lessons  are  put  there 
for  a  purpose,  and  should  not  be  neglected.  Usually 
they  explain  the  particular  point  which  the  lesson  imme- 
diately succeeding  is  intended  to  illustrate.  Each  lesson 
should  be  studied  with  reference  to  its  accompanying 
remark,  and  in  those  instances  where  the  remark  sets 
forth  a  rule  of  spelling  or  pronunciation,  the  children 
should  memorize  and  recite  it, — as,  for  example,  the 
remark  at  the  beginning  of  Lesson  32. 

Second  Class. — The  work  of  the  second  year  should 
extend  to  Lesson  171.  Especial  attention  is  to  be  given 
this  year  to  homophonous  words,  the  proper  accent  of 
words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  and  to  suffixes  and 
prefixes,  but  exercises  on  the  diacritical  marks  and  silent 
letters  should  not  be  abandoned. 


CLASSES.  89 

Explain  carefully  what  the  word  homophonous  means, 
and  in  each  lesson  on  homophonous  words  require  the 
pupils  first  to  spell  and  define  the  words  orally,  and 
then  to  write  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  include  one 
or  more  words  of  the  lesson.  Brevity  should  not  be 
encouraged  at  the  expense  of  clearness.  Each  sentence 
should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  show  that  the  pupil 
understands  perfectly  the  meaning  of  the  word  used,  and 
pupils  should  be  made  to  rewrite  every  sentence  that  is 
ambiguous  in  this  respect. 

Third  Class. — The  work  designed  for  the  last  year  is 
devoted  principally  to  pronunciation,  but  many  lessons 
are  interspersed  on  *'  Words  which  require  care  in 
Spelling."  The  latter  lessons  contain,  for  the  most  part, 
words  of  every-day  use,  such  as  one  may  be  called  upon 
to  spell  at  any  time.  A  very  few  lists  only  are  given  of 
long  and  unusual  words,  and  no  words  are  presented  as 
mere  puzzles. 

Lesson  201,  on  synonyms,  is  suggestive  of  other  les- 
sons of  like  character.  The  pupils  should  write  sen- 
tences showing  the  fine  distinctions  between  the  various 
synonyms,  and  also  when  they  are  interchangeable  and 
when  not.  Exercises  of  a  similar  nature  have  been  sug- 
gested in  connection  with  the  reading  lessons.  These 
exercises,  if  properly  conducted,  will  give  pupils  a  fine 
command  of  language. 


E.  M.-8. 


WRITING 


VIII. 

ECLECTIC  SYSTEM   OF  PENMANSHIP. 

WRITING  is  second  in  importance  only  to  read- 
ing. It  has  been  urged  under  the  instructions 
for  teaching  reading  that  lessons  in  writing  should  go 
hand  in  hand  with  the  former  from  the  very  beginning. 
Indeed,  as  Mr.  Thompson  well  says  in  his  preface  to  the 
Hand-book  to  the  Eclectic  Penmanship:  "Neither 
writing  nor  spelling  should  be  regarded  as  distinct 
branches  of  learning.  They  are  only  a  necessary  part 
of  language  teaching,  and  the  method  of  teaching  them 
should  be  adapted  to  the  best  methods  of  teaching  read- 
ing and  language  in  general." 

Writing  has  for  its  object  the  expression  of  thought 
in  written  words,  in  order  that  this  thought  may  be  con- 
veyed to  the  minds  of  others  through  the  eye.  There- 
fore, the  first  aim  in  wTiting  should  be  legibility.  No 
matter  what  other  qualities  writing  may  possess,  if  it  is 
illegible  it  is  useless.  The  next  aim  should  be  rapidity 
of  execution.  "Time  is  money,"  and  if  a  man's  busi- 
ness demands  that  much  time  be  devoted  to  writing, 
rapidity  is  of  but  little  less  importance  than  legibility. 
Next,  but  a  long  way  after  these  points,  comes  beauty. 
The  first  two  may  be  considered  the  necessities,  and  the 
latter  the  luxury,   of  penmanship. 

The  Eclectic  System  of  Penmanship  is  founded  upon 
these  principles.  The  style  of  the  letters  is  severely 
plain    and    simple,    and    the   method   of    instruction   sug- 

(93) 


94  WRITING. 

gested  aims  at  legibility  first,  and  then  at  rapidity  and 
beauty.  We  can  not  give  a  better  idea  of  what  this 
method  is  than  by  quoting  in  full  from  the  author's 
Preface  to  the  new  edition  of  the  Hand-book : 

''The  New  Eclectic  Penmanship,  and  the  accompany- 
ing Hand-book,  are  the  result  of  a  thorough  revision 
and  reconstruction  of  Thompson  and  Bowler's  Eclectic 
System  of    Penmanship  by  L.  S.  Thompson. 

"When  the  system  was  first  published,  in  1870,  the 
present  author  had  practiced  for  years  the  plan  of  giving 
whole  letters  and  whole  words  as  the  first  lessons  in 
writing  for  little  children,  in  opposition  to  the  then  pre- 
vailing method  of  first  teaching  lines  as  elements,  then 
principles  or  parts  of  letters,  then  letters,  and  finally 
words. 

''This  word,  thought,  or  language  method  of  teach- 
ing writing  to  beginners  has  only  lately  found  favor  in 
the  East,  as  an  adjunct  to  the  "  Quincy  Method,"  but 
it  has  been  practiced  in  several  western  cities  for  the  last 
twelve  or  fifteen  years. 

**The  New  Eclectic  Penmanship  claims  superiority  in 
its  adaptation  to  the  advanced  methods  of  teaching  other 
subjects. 

"The  writing  or  the  spelling  of  columns  of  unmean- 
ing words  must  always  be  distasteful.  The  writing  and 
the  spelling  of  words  should  be  taught  in  sentences 
which  embody  a  thought  within  the  capacity  of  the 
child,   at  the  very  outset  of  the  course. 

"The  analysis  of  letters  is  not  the  first  step  in  learn- 
ing to  write,  any  more  than  an  analysis  of  words  is  the 
first  step  in  learning  to  talk.  The  first  step  is  mere 
imitation.  Analysis  comes  at  a  later  period,  and  it 
should  always  be  as  simple  and  natural  as  possible. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BOOKS.  95 

"Capital  letters  should  be  introduced  early  in  the 
course,  because  children  need  them  in  their  daily  exer- 
cises. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  teachers  who  are  not  familiar 
with  the  Eclectic  Penmanship,  we  here  give  a  brief 
description  of   the  several  books  of  the  regular  course. 

No.  I  is  in  large  hand,  and  contains  all  the  figures, 
all  the  small  letters  but  two,  and  over  one  hundred 
words.  Each  letter  is  given  once  separately,  but  almost 
all  the  drill  is  required  in  simple  words,  the  longer  ones 
generally  being  built  up  from  the  shorter  ones.  A  very 
simple  explanation  of  each  letter  is  suggested  at  the 
head  of  each  page,  but  no  rigid  analysis  is  attempted  in 
this  book. 

No.  2  introduces  the  capitals  in  classified  order,  and 
about  ninety  new  words,  some  of  them  being  quite 
short,  and  others  longer.  The  long  words  are  generally 
derived  from  the  short  ones  by  means  of  prefixes  and 
affixes,  thus  giving  a  valuable  drill  in  the  derivation  of 
words  as  well  as  in  writing.  The  analysis  is  still  general, 
as  in  No.   i. 

No.  3  contains  about  forty-five  connected  phrases  and 
short  sentences.  The  capitals  are  classified  according  to 
difficulty  in  execution,  and  a  closer  analysis  into  the 
elements  of  the  figures,  small  letters,  and  capitals,  is  in- 
dicated by  the  use  of  small  figures. 

No.  4  contains  forty-six  phrases  and  sentences,  graded 
as  to  length.  The  size  of  the  writing  is  a  medium 
hand,  or  standard  business  size,  the  short  letters  being 
about  one  tenth  of  an  inch,  or  two  and  a  half  milli- 
meters in  height.  In  this  book,  the  head-lines  are 
used  only  about  one  third  of  the  distance  down  the 
page. 


96  WRITING. 

Nos.  5  and  6  are  books  of  still  longer  sentences  than 
those  in  No.  4.  The  capitals  are  still  arranged  in  clas- 
sified order.  These  two  numbers  are  duplicated  in 
smaller  hand  for  girls  for  the  accommodation  of  teachers 
who  prefer  for  them  copies  in  a  smaller  hand. 

These  six  numbers  are  all  that  are  fiecessary  in  order 
to  teach  a  good,  plain,  and  serviceable  handwriting;  but 
where  time  and  circumstances  allow,  the  higher  num- 
bers, 6yi,  7,  8,  and  9  should  be  used,  especially  if 
pupils  are  to  be  trained  for  mercantile  life.  The  higher 
numbers  are  as  follows^ 

No.  6^4  contains  twenty-four  double  line  copies  ex- 
tending clear  across  the  page.  Merely  writing  short  sen- 
tences and  single  lines  once  across  the  page  can  never 
produce  a  free,  corresponding,  business  style.  The 
copies  in  this  book  give  short  and  concise  rules  for  the 
use  of  punctuation  marks  in  writing. 

No.  7  is  a  book  of  commercial  and  other  useful  forms, 
and  definitions  of  commercial  terms.  Copies  i,  2,  3,  6, 
8,  10,  and  18,  define  Note,  Maker,  Endorser,  Order,  Re- 
ceipt, Day-Book,  and  Draft,  respectively,  while  copies  4 
and  5  are  forms  for  notes ;  7,  an  order  for  goods ;  9,  a 
receipt  in  full;  11,  a  day-book  entry;  12  and  13,  the 
face  of  a  cash-book;  14,  a  ledger  heading;  15,  a  due- 
bill;  16  and  17,  an  invitation  and  a  reply;  19,  a  sight 
draft ;  20,  a  poetical  quotation ;  2 1  and  24,  prose  quota- 
tions;  22  and  23,  advertisements.  No.  7  is  not  dupli- 
cated in  smaller  hand,  for  the  reason  that  business 
writing  should  not  be  contracted  below  the  standard 
size. 

No.  8  Is  a  book  of  words  in  medium  hand,  designed 
to  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  capitals.  The  Eclectic  Pen- 
manship is  based  on  one  simple  business  style  of  writing, 


WRITING   MATERIALS.  97 

and  this  book  is  made  only  for  the  accommodation  of 
those  who  prefer  a  variety  of  forms  for  capitals  and  small 
letters. 

No.  9  is  a  book  of  bold,  off-hand  writing,  and  German 
Text,   Old  English,   and  Marking  Letters. 

The  Exercise-book. — Besides  the  regular  copy-books, 
each  child  should  be  supplied  with  an  Exercise-book 
prepared  to  accompany  this  series.  The  Exercise-book 
is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  series,  and  contains 
more  than  seventy  different  exercises  for  developing  the 
various  movements.  Each  class  of  exercises  is  explained 
in  the  Hand-book.  It  is  adapted  to  all  grades,  and 
should  be  used  daily  in  connection  with  the  other  books ; 
for  which  purpose  it  is  made  larger  than  the  others,  and 
with  a  thick  cover,  so  that  the  copy-book  may  be  kept 
inside  of  it  w^hen  not  in  use. 

Writing  Cards. — Every  teacher  should  have  a  set  of 
Writing  Cards ;  and  from  these,  so  far  as  the  form  of 
letters  is  concerned,  the  lesson  should  be  given.  As 
each  letter  is  analyzed  and  a  full  printed  explanation 
given,  any  one  can  teach  the  forms  of  the  letters  from 
these  charts  as  well  as  the  boundaries  of  states  from 
maps.  The  Writing  Cards,  seventy-two  in  number, 
contain  but  a  single  letter,  figure,  or  exercise  on  each 
side,  large  enough  to  be  seen  across  the  largest  school- 
room. The  analysis  is  indicated  by  figures,  and  the  ex- 
planations are  printed  in  large  type  under  each  letter. 
They  are  indispensable  to  teachers  who  do  not  write 
well  on  the  blackboard. 

Pens,  for  school  use,  should  have  smooth,  even 
points,  fine  enough  to  make  the  delicate  hair-lines,  and 
sufficiently  elastic  to  make  the  shades  even  and  clear. 
Teachers  should  keep  a  supply  of   pens,   and  not  allow 

E.  M.— 9. 


98  WRITING. 

pupils  to  write  with  large,  coarse  ones,  designed  only  for 
writing  on  coarse  paper.  Most  new  pens,  being  more  or 
less  oily,  should  be  wet  and  wiped  dry  before  using, 
that  the  ink  may  flow  more  freely.  None  but  the  best 
pens  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  pupils.  The 
Eclectic  Pen  meets  all  requirements  of  the  school-room. 

Pen-holders  should  be  light  and  plain,  holding  the 
pen  firmly.  About  one  third  of  a  medium-sized  pen 
should  be  inserted  in  the  holder. 

Good  black  ink  is  the  best;  it  should  be  dark 
enough  to  enable  the  pupil  to  see  the  delicate  hair-lines, 
and  sufficiently  fluid  to  flow  freely.  Common  writing- 
fluid  and  cheap  preparations  are  not  fit  for  the  school- 
room. When  evaporation  causes  ink  to  thicken,  it 
should  be  diluted  with  soft  water  or  cold  tea.  The  ink- 
wells should  be  covered  when  not  in  use,  replenished 
every  week,  and  often  thoroughly  cleaned. 

In  taking  ink,  the  pupil  should  be  careful  not  to  allow 
the  pen  to  touch  the  inkstand,  dipping  it  only  to  the 
shoulder,  and  slowly  removing  it.  If  it  is  removed  too 
quickly,  the  attraction  of  the  fluid  will  leave  too  much 
ink  on  the  pen  ;  if  too  slowly,  only  a  small  quantity  of 
ink  will  remain  on  the  pen. 

Pen-wipers. — Every  pupil  should  be  provided  with  a 
suitable  pen-wiper ;  and  after  the  pen  is  used,  it  should 
be  wiped  dry.  One  made  of  dark  cloth  will  answer 
every  purpose.  A  very  cheap  one  can  be  made  of 
black  cloth  cut  in  a  circular  form,  and  folded  twice, 
making  it  a  quarter  circle  of  four  leaves.  By  stitching 
four  such  pieces  together  at  their  right-angular  points, 
a  pretty  and  serviceable  wiper  will  be  formed,  and  the 
inside  folds  can  be  kept  free  from  dirt,  grease,  etc.  They 
may  be  kept  with  the  other  materials,  as  common  prop- 


WRITING    CLASSES.  99 

erty   to    be    distributed    at    each    lesson,    or    the    pupils 
may  be  allowed  to  have  them  at  their  desks. 

Blotting-paper. — Every  pupil  should  also  be  pro- 
vided with  a  piece  of  thick  blotting-paper,  about  three 
inches  wide  and  six  inches  long.  This  may  be  used, 
not  only  for  absorbing  blots,  but  as  a  rest  for  the  right 
hand,  to  prevent  soiling  the  paper.  It  should  be  kept 
in  the  copy-book. 

Habits  of  neatness  should  be  required  in  wiping  the 
pen  and  in  taking  care  of  materials,  as  well  as  in  the 
care  of  the  copy-book. 

Classification.  —  In  ungraded  schools,  the  pupils 
should  be  classified  in  writing  as  well  as  in  reading  or 
arithmetic.  To  do  this,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
term  the  teacher  may  pass  each  pupil  a  slip  of  paper, 
and  on  it  require  him  to  write  his  name,  the  month,  and 
day,  and  after  this  the  slips  may  be  collected  and  ex- 
amined. 

Place  the  best  writers  in  the  first  division,  and  the 
poorest,  and  those  who  have  never  written,  in  the 
second  division,  never  having  more  than  two  classes  in 
the  same  room.  Select  such  a  book  for  each  class  as  is 
best  adapted  to  the  largest  number  of  pupils  in  it;  and 
while  giving  out  the  books,  pens,  etc.,  and  teaching 
position,  pen-holding,  and  giving  movement  exercises, 
the  two  classes  may  be  instructed  together;  but  when 
the  regular  copy  is  taught,  proceed  with  each  class  sepa- 
rately, so  far  as  instruction  is  concerned. 

After  explaining  the  copy  that  the  first  class  is  to 
write,  direct  the  pupils  to  practice  it,  and,  while  they 
are  doing  this,  explain  the  copy  for  the  second  class 
and  set  them  to  practicing  it.  Then  inspect  the  writing 
of  the  first  class,    illustrate  the  errors,   and  direct  them 


lOO  WRITING, 

to  practice  again.  Now  give  attention  to  the  second 
class,  and  so  on,  keeping  both  classes  at  work  together, 
that  you  may  economize  time,  and  that  a  part  of  the 
school  may  not  be  engaged  in  other  affairs  liable  to  jar 
the  desks  of  those  engaged  in  writing. 

When  and  how  Long  to  Write. — Any  time  may 
be  taken  for  the  writing  lesson  that  suits  the  convenience 
of  the  teacher,  except  the  first  few  minutes  of  the 
session,  when  the  hand  is  unsteady  from  walking  or 
play,  and  the  last  half  hour  in  the  day,  when  the  pupils 
are  apt  to  be  too  weary  to  pay  attention,  and  the  light 
may  be  inadequate. 

The  length  of  the  lesson  should  tisnally  be  about  half  an 
hour  daily ;  but,  as  the  hand  of  the  beginner  soon  tires, 
it  is  better  to  give  young  pupils  shorter  lessons,  and 
have  them  more  frequently,  than  to  require  them  to 
practice  when  weary  or  in  an  incorrect  position.  With 
older  pupils,  who  have  formed  the  habits  of  sitting  in  a 
correct  manner  and  of  moving  the  pen  freely  and  easily, 
the  lesson  may  be  continued  an  hour  if   desired. 

Awakening  an  Interest. — The  mere  matter  of  im- 
parting instruction  is  not  the  only  work  of  the  true 
teacher.  He  will  awaken  and  keep  up  an  interest ;  he 
will  be  full  of  enthusiasm  in  his  work,  infusing  life  and 
energy  into  the  minds  of  his  pupils  ;  he  will  awaken  and 
foster  a  spirit  of  emulation.  This  he  can  do  in  various 
ways,  and  if  he  is  thoroughly  alive  to  his  work,  he  will 
not  be  content  until  he  has  learned  some  means  of  ac- 
complishing it.  But,  to  aid  the  inexperienced,  we  will 
give  a  few  of  the  many  ways  that  have  proved  suc- 
cessful :       4 

At  the  commencement  of  the  term,  the  pupils  may 
be  directed  to  write  their  names,  with  the  year,  month, 


,  ,        l'        J        T  ,         , 

1  >       1      \1         •)  •>    , 

1     ■>  1  II  1 


A  WAKENING  AN  INTER ESTo      \  ;  ' '  - '  >  \    \0\\  ,'    , , 

and  day,  or  some  motto,  verse,  or  sentence  on  a  slip  of 
paper,  which  is  to  be  filed  away,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
term  the  same  is  to  be  written  again,  and  compared  with 
the  first.  These  specimens,  filed  away  term  after  term, 
serve  as  milestones  to  mark  the  progress  of  the  pupils, 
and  will  be  exhibited  with  pride  by  the  successful 
teacher. 

Another  way  is  to  have  the  class  write  several  groups 
of  letters,  words,  and  sentences  out  of  school,  each  one 
trying  his  best.  Several  of  the  finest  specimens,  with 
a  number  showing  the  greatest  effort,  may  be  selected 
and  neatly  pasted  in  a  blank-book,  with  the  pupil's  name 
attached.  These  specimens  may  be  ornamented  with 
circles,  squares,  scrolls,  or  figures  of  different  designs, 
made  with  a  ruling  pen,  using  inks  of  different  colors. 
In  one  instance,  where  this  plan  was  followed,  every 
pupil  whose  name  appeared  in  the  book  asked  to  carry 
it  home  to  show  to  his  parents,  and  this  increased  the 
interest  and  enthusiasm  to  such  an  extent  that  soon 
books  were  produced    containing    specimens   from  every 

pupil. 

By  another  method,  great  freedom  and  rapidity,  as 
well  as  accuracy,  may  be  obtained.  The  teacher  gives 
out  some  word  or  sentence,  and  directs  the  class  to 
write  it  as  many  times  as  possible  within  a  given  time, 
and  write  it  well.  Careful  attention  to  form,  height, 
slant,  width,  spacing,  and  movement  should  be  required, 
never  allowing  the  writing  to  degenerate  into  scribbling. 
Soon  the  rules  will  become  habits,  requiring  muscular 
rather  than  mental  effort. 

For  full  details  as  to  the  methods  of  conducting  the 
writing  lesson,  a  description  of  the  letters  and  figures, 
and  how  to  teach  shading,  spacing  and  form,  the  teacher 


'IC^2  WRITING. 

is  referred  to  the  "Hand-book  to  the  New  Eclectic  Pen- 
manship." It  is  important  that  every  teacher  who  uses 
the  copy-books  should  make  a  careful  study  of  this 
Hand-book  in  order  to  accomplish  the  best  results. 
Speaking  of  this  point  in  his  Introduction,  Mr.  Thomp- 
son says : 

"That  the  results  obtained  in  Penmanship,  in  most 
of  our  public  schools,  are  not  what  they  should  be,  is 
evident  from  an  inspection  of  the  examination  papers  of 
most  of  the  graduating  classes,  and  from  the  oft-repeated 
remark  of  merchants,  that,  when  boys  come  from  the 
public  schools  to  the  counting-room,  their  handwriting  is 
impracticable,  and  soon   undergoes  an  entire  change. 

"The  fault  lies  in  the  bad  arrangement  and  adapta- 
tion of  books,  in  the  incorrect  methods  of  teaching 
which  they  inculcate,  and  m  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
best  teachers  in  our  common  schools  have  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  fit  themselves  properly  for  teaching  Penmanship. 

' '  There  is,  therefore,  a  demand  for  something  better, 
and  it  is  believed  that  there  will  be  great  improvement 
in  the  results  obtained  if  the  plan  of  the  Eclectic  Series 
is  carried  out  as  directed  in  the  Copy-books,  and  in  this 
little  Hand-book,  which  has  been  prepared  to  aid  those 
who  wish  to  qualify  themselves  to  teach  this  branch 
most  advantageously. 

"The  best  penman  may  be  a  very  poor  teacher;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  most  successful  teacher  may  be  a 
very  ordinary  writer ;  and,  as  *  a  lame  man  may  be  able 
to  point  out  the  way,  though  unable  to  walk  therein, ' 
so  it  is  believed  that  any  one  who  has  sufficient  ability 
to  teach  other  branches  successfully,  can  teach  writing 
well  by  becoming  thoroughly  acquainted  with  its  princi- 
ples, and  insisting  on  a  strict  adherence  to  them." 


ARITHMETIC 


fl 


ll 


IX. 

ARITHMETIC— First  Year. 

THE  subject  of  Arithmetic  is  usually  considered  easy 
to  teach,  probably  because  it  seems  to  possess  a 
more  definite  aim  than  most  of  the  common  branches. 
But,  nevertheless,  it  is  a  subject  in  regard  to  which  the 
young  teacher  is  liable  to  make  serious  errors  of  judg- 
ment, both  as  to  the  method  adopted  and  the  manner 
of  conducting  recitations  under  that  method. 

It  has  become  somewhat  the  fashion  to  adopt  new  and 
fanciful  ideas  in  teaching,  and  many  young  teachers  are 
misled  into  thinking  that  unless  a  method  is  new  it  can 
not  be  the  best.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  change  is  not  necessarily  progress.  Any  and  every 
method  must  be  subjected,  first,  to  the  laws  of  common 
sense  as  applied  to  the  development  of  a  child's  mind; 
and,  second,  to  the  test  of  actual  experience  in  the 
class-room,  before  it  can  be  proclaimed  the  best,  or  even 
a  good,    method. 

The  method  presented  in  this  Manual  is  neither  purely 
nor  partly  theoretical  in  nature,  but  is  the  method  of 
practical,  successful  teachers  of  long  experience.  It  has 
stood  the  test  of  the  school-room  for  years,  and  has 
witnessed  the  growth  and  failure  of  many  other  methods, 
some  of  which  attained  a  wide  but  short-lived  popu- 
larity, while  others  are  at  work  to-day,  befogging  the 
minds   of   little   children,   or  converting  them  into   mere 

(105) 


1 06  ARITHME  TIC. 

figure-making  machines,  and  in  either  case  creating  a 
hfe-long  distaste  for  mathematics. 

It  is  difficult,  not  to  say  impossible,  to  lay  down  an 
arbitrary  rule  as  to  how  much  work  shall  be  attempted 
in  any  one  year  in  ungraded  schools,  since  the  condi- 
tions,— such  as  the  length  of  the  school  year,  the 
amount  of  time  that  can  be  devoted  to  arithmetic,  the 
number,  intelligence,  and  age  of  the  class,  etc., — differ 
so  widely  in  the  numerous  schools.  The  divisions  of 
work  recommended  in  this  Manual  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  arbitrary,  therefore,  but  only  as  meeting  the 
average  requirements  of  common  schools.  They  are  to 
be  used  simply  as  a  guide,  and  should  be  modified  at 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher  as  circumstances  may 
demand. 

The  first  step  should  be  to  examine  the  entire  school 
carefully,  and  find  out,  if  possible,  just  how  thorough 
the  instruction  of  the  more  advanced  pupils  has  been. 
Then  classify  the  pupils  according  to  their  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  entirely  irrespective  of  age  or  of  the  in- 
equality of   numbers  in  each  class. 

The  work  that  Is  here  presented  under  the  heads 
**  First  Year"  and  ''Second  Year"  should  be  thor- 
oughly ^mastered,  whether  it  requires  one  year,  two 
years,  or  three  years.  If  the  entire  school  be  suffi- 
ciently advanced,  the  instruction  here  suggested  for  the 
primary  classes  may  be  omitted  altogether,  but  the 
teacher  should  be  thoroughly  satisfied  on  this  point 
before  assigning  pupils  to  higher  classes. 

Older  pupils,  whom  It  may  be  necessary  to  place  in 
the  primary  classes  at  first,  will  naturally  be  able  to 
advance  more  rapidly  than  the  younger  ones,  and 
should    be    transferred   to    higher   classes   as    they   show 


FIRST    YEAR    COURSE.  10/ 

themselves  capable  of  such  advancement.  By  having 
such  pupils  recite  in  both  a  higher  and  a  lower  class  for 
a  time,  these  transfers  need  not  disturb  in  the  least  the 
daily  routine  of  the  programme. 

In  the  first  class,  besides  those  who  have  never  studied 
Arithmetic,  put  all  who  have  been  poorly  trained  in  the 
elementary  processes.  It  will  be  economy  of  time  and 
labor  to  do  this,  even  if  you  have  to  include  the  entire 
school  in  this  division  for  a  time ;  for,  in  arithmetic, 
above  all  other  studies  of  the  common  school  course,  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  one  step  shall  be 
thoroughly  understood  before  the  next  is  attempted. 
The  first  two  years'  training  is  of  more  importance  than 
all  the  rest  the  child  receives. 

Do  not  attempt  to  have  the  cJiildren  use  a  book  in  the 
primary  class. — A  book  should  not  be  used,  because  no 
book  contains,  and  no  book  can  be  made  to  contain,  the 
kind  of  instruction  necessary  the  first  year. 

Do  not  teach  the  figures  in  tJie  first  lessons,  and  do  not 
alloiu  the  cJiildren  to  do  any  written  work;  bnt  teach  orally y 
ilhistj^ating  every  operation,  at  first,  by  means  of  various 
objects. — The  instruction  should  be  entirely  oral,  and 
should  deal  altogether  at  first  with  concrete  numbers. 
The  little  child  can  not  grasp  abstract  ideas.  It  is  true 
you  can  teach  him  to  repeat,  "2  and  2  are  4;"  "2 
from  4  leave  2;"  '*2  times  2  are  4;"  and  "4  divided 
by  2  equal  2."  But,  without  the  proper  preliminary 
work,  these  words  can  not  possibly  convey  any  clear  mean- 
ing to  his  mind.  This  kind  of  instruction  in  a  primary 
class  is  simply  machine  drilling  on  abstract  numbers  and 
words  which  convey  no  ideas,  or  at  best  a  mere  jumble 
of  ideas  to  the  child's  mind.  It  is  one  of  the  worst, 
and  at  the  same  time  one  of   the  most  common,   faults 


I08  ARITHMETIC. 

in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  and  it  is  one  which  is  very 
apt  to  disgust  pupils  with  the  subject  from  the  outset. 
On  tlie  other  hand,  if  the  proper  method  of  teaching  is 
pursued,  which  may  properly  be  called  the  object 
method,  the  children  are  taught  to  think ;  they  will  be 
interested  at  the  very  beginning,  and  they  will  be  kept 
interested  by  this  method  until  they  are  successfully 
carried  to  the  point  where  the  object  method  is  no 
longer  necessary,  and  their  minds  are  ready  to  grasp 
the  abstract,  through  careful  preliminary  drill  on  the 
concrete. 

Begin  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  then,  with  objects, — 
blocks,  balls,  marbles,  sticks,  books,  kernels  of  corn, 
apples,  shells,  pebbles,  etc.,  etc.  The  more  varied  your 
assortment  of  objects  the  better.  The  numeral  frame 
and  other  mechanical  devices  are  useful,  but  should  not 
be  used  exclusively,  or  the  work  will  become  monot- 
onous and  tiresome. 

Teach  the  concrete  digital  mnnbers  in  regular  order,  from 
one  to  ten  inclusive,  ilhisti'ating  each  number  by  correspond- 
ing groups  of  objects. — The  first  step  is  to  teach  number- 
ing ;  that  is,  so  to  train  the  child  that  he  can  instantly 
give  the  number  of  any  group  of  objects  not  exceeding 
ten,  at  sight,  and  zvitJwut  counting.  Experience  has 
proved  that  nearly  every  child  old  enough  to  commence 
school  has  at  that  time  a  very  good  knowledge  of  the 
numbers  I  and  2.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  spend 
much  time  on  these  numbers.  However,  the  class 
should  be  thoroughly  tested  on  them  before  proceeding 
to  take  up  the  number  three.  The  average  child  com- 
mencing school  is  unable  to  recognize  at  sight,  without 
counting,  the  number  of  a  group  of  objects  exceeding 
three,   and  from  this  point  the  successive  steps  towards 


FIRST  YEAR  COURSE.  IO9 

ten  must  be  made  slowly  and  carefully.  Do  not  take 
up  a  new  num.ber  until  the  class  has  proved  itself  per- 
fectly trained  on  all  that  precedes.  Each  day's  work 
should  include  a  review  of  all  the  previous  work,  so  as 
to  keep  the  different  numbers  fresh  in  the  mind. 

Do  not  allow  a  child  to  count  by  ones  to  find  how  many 
objects  tJiere  ai^e  in  a  group,  but  teach  hijn  to  recognize  the 
group  as  a  luhole. — Teach  what  th7'ee  means  by  re- 
peatedly combining  two  and  one,  and  one  and  two,  into 
groups  of  three  apples,  three  blocks,  three  marbles, 
three  books,  three  pencils,  three  lines,  three  dots,  etc., 
etc. ,  and  then  immediately  separating  these  groups  again 
into  their  component  parts,  two  and  one,  or  one  and 
two,  apples,  blocks,  etc.  When  the  group  three  in- 
stantly suggests  the  idea  three  to  the  entire  class,  teach 
foiw  in  the  same  manner  by  combining  and  separating 
one  and  three,  three  and  one,  and  two  and  two  objects. 
Make  all  the  possible  combinations  and  separations  of 
integers  forming  each  number,  using  as  wide  a  variety 
of  objects  as  possible.  As  soon  as  the  class  is  suffi- 
ciently advanced,  have  the  children  do  the  combining 
and  separating  of  objects  for  themselves. 

If  you  begin  by  teaching  a  child  to  count,  he  is  very 
apt  to  get  an  erroneous  idea  by  considering  the  group 
of  objects  individually  instead  of  collectively ;  and,  as  he 
points  them  out, — either  actually  or  mentally,  —  ''one, 
two,  three,  four,  five,"  his  three  means  the  third  object 
enumerated,  and  \\\s  five  means  the  fifth ;  so  t\\?it  five, 
to  his  mind,  really  means  one  particular  object — the 
fifth — in  place  of  a  group  of  five  objects,  irrespective  of 
order  or  individuality.  Not  until  the  child  has  learned 
to  associate  a  number  with  its  group,  should  he  be 
taught  to  count  the  objects  in  that  group.      If  the  child 


1 1 0  ARITHME  TIC. 

once  forms  the  habit  of  counting  by  ones  in  order  to 
answer  such  a  question  as,  *'How  many  blocks  in  this 
group?"  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  correct  his 
error.  In  place  of  adding  figured  at  sight,  when  that 
step  of  the  work  is  reached,  he  will  stop  to  count  on  his 
fingers  to  obtain  the  result,  and  will  probably  never  be 
able  to  add  rapidly  and  at  the  same  time  accurately. 
Therefore,  we  would  suggest  that  counting  be  deferred 
altogether  until  the  class  can  satisfactorily  number  any 
group  including  ten  or  less.  When  you  do  teach  the 
class  to  count,  have  a  group  of  objects  counted  forward 
and  backward,  and  in  promiscuous  order.  In  this  way, 
you  will  avoid  the  danger  of  having  the  number  associ- 
ated with  one  particular  object. 

Teach  Addition  ayid  Subtraction  together. — The  one  is 
the  reverse  of  the  other,  and  when  taught  together  they 
help  the  child  to  understand  each  process  more  readily 
than  if  they  were  taught  separately.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  teach  the  signs  until  abstract  numbers  and  written 
work  are  commenced. 

Do  not  teach  Midtiplicatioit  and  Division  in  the  pnmary 
class. — They  do  not  help  in  the  understanding  of  addi- 
tion and  subtraction  ;  but,  on  the  contrar>',  are  apt  to 
confuse  the  child  by  the  number  of  different  processes 
presented  to  his  mind  at  once. 

Teach  the  concrete  digital  riumbers  without  objects. — 
When,  by  the  use  of  objects  before  the  eyes  of  the 
class,  you  have  taught  all  satisfactorily  to  number  groups 
at  sight,  and  to  add  and  subtract  all  the  possible  combi- 
nations within  the  limit  of  ten  as  a  total,  the  children 
are  ready  to  take  the  next  step.  From  combining  and 
separating  objects  they  can  see,  lead  them  to  combine 
and  separate  groups  of  objects    that   they  can   not  see, 


F/A'ST  YEAR  COURSE.  I  I  I 

but  can  readily  imagine,  such  as  animals,  houses,  trees, 
tools,  toys,  or  an}'  objects  with  which  they  are  familiar. 
Repeat  the  same  processes  that  were  used  with  the  ob- 
jects before  the  class  in  combining  and  separating,  and 
in  the  same  order.  Give  numerous  exercises  on  each 
number,  with  constant  reviews,  until  the  entire  class 
can  perform  each  operation  with  great  accuracy  and 
rapidity. 

Teach  the  absti^ut  digital  numbers  orally. — When  you 
are  satisfied  wnth  the  results  of  the  work  thus  far,  take 
the  next  step  b}'  simph'  dropping  the  names  of  the 
objects,  and  teach  the  abstract  digital  numbers  orally  in 
the  same  order  that  you  taught  the  concrete.  Accuracy 
and  rapidity  are  the  important  aims,  and  the  children 
should  be  drilled  until  they  can  give  the  answers  to  all 
the  possible  combinations  and  separations  instantly,  and 
apparently  \\'ithout  stopping  to  think. 

Teach  the  digital  figures,  and  the  use  of  tJie  sigfis  plus  and 
minus  and  the  sign  of  equality. — During  the  last  part  of 
the  first  year,  when  the  children  are  thor- 
oughly proficient  in  the  preceding  steps, 
teach    them    the    written    characters    that 
stand   for   the  numbers  which    they   have 
learned    to   use  orally.      Write  the  corre- 
sponding words  and  figures  on  the  board 
in    two    columns,    as   in   the   margin,    and 
explain  that  we  use  figures  in  arithmetic 
in    place   of    words   for   the    sake   of  con- 
venience    and     rapidity.        Exercise     the 
class    in    making    the    several    figures    on 
their  slates  and  on  the  board,  at  first  sep- 
arately, and  then  in  simple  problems  involving  both  con- 
crete and  abstract  numbers. 


One, 

I 

Two, 

2 

TJiree, 

3 

Four, 

4 

Five, 

5 

Six, 

6 

Seven, 

7 

Eight, 

8 

Nine, 

9 

Ten, 

lO 

1 1 2  ARITHME  TIC. 


To  teach  the  signs,  write  on  the  board  an  example 
similar  to  the  following: 

4  and   2  are  6. 
4  plus  2  equal  6. 
4  +  2=6. 

Explain  that  in  place  of  the  word  phis,  the  sign  +  is 
commonly  used,  and  that  it  is  to  be  read  plus;  thus, 
4  +  2  is  read  **4  plus  2."  In  the  same  way  explain 
that  the  sign  =,  called  the  sign  of  equality^  stands  in 
place  of  the  words  **is  equal  to,"  or  equals;  thus,  4  + 
2  =  6,  is  read:  ''4  plus  2  equals  6."  Teach  that  the 
sign  — ,  called  the  minus  sign,  is  used  in  place  of  the 
word  less  or  inimiSy   thus : 

6  —  5  =  i>   is  read 
6  less  5  equals    i,   or 
6  minus  5   equals   I. 

Have  the  class  practice  with  the  signs  until  they  are 
used  as  readily  in  reciting  as  the  words  for  which  they 
stand. 

The  following  t^ble  will  be  found  useful  for  slate  and 
board  exercises.  Have  the  class  fill  out  the  blanks.  It 
may  also  be  used  for  oral  drill,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
year  children  should  be  able  to  give  the  answers  in- 
stantly. 

I  +  I  =  ;    therefore,  2  —  i  =: 


2  +  I  or  I  +  2  =  ;    therefore,  3—1 


3  +  1  or  I  +  3  =  ;    therefore,  4  —  I  = 
2  +  2  =r  ;    therefore,  4  —  2  =r 


FIRST  YEAR  COURSE. 


113 


4+1 

or   1+4  = 

;         therefore, 

5—1- 

;      5- 

-4  = 

3+2 

or  2  +  3 

;          therefore, 

5  —  2 

;      5- 

-3  = 

5+1 

or   1  +  5 

;          therefore, 

6       I  — 

;       6- 

-5  = 

4+2 

or  2  -(-  4  — 

;         therefore, 

6      ? 

;       6- 

-4  = 

Z^Z 

;          therefore, 

6-3- 

6+1 

or   I  -|-  6  — 

;         therefore, 

7-  I 

7- 

-6  = 

5+2 

or  2+5_ 

;         therefore. 

7  —  2 

;       7- 

-5  = 

4  +  3 

or  3  +  4  — 

;          therefore, 

7—3  — 

;      7- 

-4  = 

7+1 

or   1  +  7 

;         therefore, 

8—1  = 

8- 

-7  = 

6  +  2 

or  2  -f  6  — 

;         therefore. 

8         7  — 

8- 

-6z 

5  +  3 

or  3  +  5  — 

;         therefore, 

8-3- 

;       8- 

-5  = 

4  +  4 

;         therefore, 

8-4- 

8+1 

or   1+8  — 

;         therefore. 

9  —  1 

9- 

-8  = 

7  +  2 

or  2+7_ 

;         therefore. 

9  —  2  — 

9- 

-7- 

6  +  3 

or  3  4-  6 

;         therefore, 

9      3- 

9- 

-6  = 

5  +  4 

or  4+5  — 

;          therefore, 

9—4 

9- 

-5  = 

9+1  or  1  +  9  — 

;         therefore. 

10  —  I  — 

;       10- 

-9 

8  +  2  or  2  +  8—     , 

therefore, 

10  —  2  —      ; 

10- 

-8 

7  +  3  or  3+7  — 

therefore, 

10-    3_ 

10 

-7 

6  -|-4  or  4  +  6 

therefore. 

10  —  4           ; 

10- 

-6 

5  +  5-   ; 

therefore, 

10-5  — 

This  is  the  extent  of  the  work  that  should  be  at- 
tempted in  the  primary  class;  and  if  the  instruction  is 
as  thorough,  and  the  reviews  are  as  frequent  as  they 
should  be,  this  amount  of  work  will  occupy  the  full 
year.  It  is  granted  that  much  greater  apparent  advance 
can  be  made  in  this  time,  and  that  children  can  be 
taught  the  names  of   numbers  as  high  as  a  hundred  or 

E.  M.-IO. 


I  1 4  ARITHME  TIC. 

more,  and  to  write  the  figures  representing  them ;  but 
the  learning  of  names  and  the  making  of  figures  do  not 
of  themselves  imply  the  gaining  or  developing  of  ideas, 
and  classes  forced  too  rapidly  over  the  preliminary 
ground  without  thoroughly  understanding  each  step  as 
they  advance,  will  sooner  or  later  show  the  bad  effects 
of  this  method  of  teaching. 


\ 


X. 

arithmetic—Second  year. 

THE  class  should  now  be  prepared  to  commence  the 
study  of  Ray's  New  Primary  Arithmetic.  If  the 
teacher  prefers  to  do  so,  the  first  six  lessons  on  numer- 
ation and  notation  may  be  omitted  until  the  close  of 
Lesson  XXXVII. 

Lessons  VII,  VIII,  and  IX  are  a  review  of  the  first 
year's  work,  and  the  advance  work  begins  with  Lesson 
XI.  Teach  each  number  from  1 1  to  20  inclusive,  just 
as  you  taught  the  numbers  from  i  to  10,  using  the 
tables  and  examples  in  the  book  as  supplementary  to 
the  oral  drill. 

If  the  first  year's  work  has  been  thoroughly  done,  the 
advance  from  10  to  20  will  be  comparatively  easy  and 
rapid.  But  the  work  should  still  be  exhaustive,  and 
should  include  counting  by  ones,  twos,  threes,  etc., 
forward  and  backward ;  also,  all  the  possible  combina- 
tions and  separations  with  a  total  of  20  or  less. 

Lesson  XI  introduces  the  new  number,  11.  To  teach 
II,  take  a  group  of  ten  objects,  such  as  pencils,  blocks, 
sticks,  or  cards,  and  tie  them  in  a  bunch  for  convenience 
of  handling.  Before  doing  this,  however,  be  sure  that 
the  entire  class  recognizes  the  fact  that  there  are  ten 
objects  in  the  group  or  bunch.  Then,  holding  up 
the  bunch,  ask  :  **  How  many  sticks  are  in  this 
group?"  Holding  up  one  stick,  ask:  **How  many 
sticks  do  I  now  hold  up  ?  "     Holding  up  one  bunch  and 

(115) 


1 1 6  A  RITHME  TIC. 

one  stick,  ask:  ''How  many  sticks  are  ten  sticks  and 
one  stick?  Now,  if  I  take  away  one  stick  (illustrating), 
how  many  sticks  are  left?" 

Continue  the  illustration  of  this  number  with  various 
objects,  and  by  means  of  dots,  lines,  crosses,  etc.,  on 
the  blackboard,  until  the  children  are  familiar  with 
eleven  as  composed  of  one  (group  of)  ten  and  one  unit. 

Teach  the  class  the  characters  that  stand  for  eleven, 
writing  both  the  word  and  the  figures  on  the  board, 
thus:  Eleven,  ii.  The  class  are  now  prepared  to  take 
up  Lesson  XI  in  the  book. 

Preface  each  of  the  succeeding  lessons  by  similar  oral 
work,  illustrating  12,  13,  14,  etc.,  up  to  20,  as  these 
numbers  are  introduced,  constantly  reviewing  with  each 
lesson  the  numbers  already  learned. 

If  the  class  have  not  already  been  taught  the  reading 
and  writing  of  numbers  up  to  100,  Lessons  II  to  VI 
inclusive  should  here  be  introduced,  and  the  drill  con- 
tinued until  the  class  are  perfect. 

The  different  values  attached  to  a  figure  by  its  posi- 
tion in  the  order  of  tens  or  in  the  order  of  units,  may 
be  illustrated  in  the  following  manner,  so  as  to  be  easily 
understood  and  remembered : 

Hold  up  one  bunch  of  ten  objects,  and  ask:  "How 
many  objects  in  this  group?"  When  the  question  is 
answered,   write  the  number   10  on  the  blackboard. 

Hold  up  one  bunch  and  one  object,  and  ask:  "How 
many  (sticks)  do  I  now  hold  up?"  When  the  answer 
eleven  is  given,  reply  "Yes,  and  eleven  is  made  up  of  i 
ten  and  i,"  holding  up  the  bunch  and  the  single  object. 
"Now  I  will  write  the  figures  that  stand  for  one  ten  and 
one,''  writing  the  number  11  on  the  board  under  the 
number  10,  as  you  say  ''  07te  ten  and  one.''     Continue  in 


SECOND   YEAR  COURSE. 


117 


this  way  with  the  consecutive  numbers  up  to  20, 
illustrating  with  objects,  and  writing  the  corresponding 
fieures  in  the  column  on  the  board.  Then  show  the 
children,  again  illustrating  each  number  with  objects, 
that,  in  the  combination  10,  the  i  stands  for  i  (group 
of)  ten,  and  the  o,  which  means  nothing,  or  naught, 
stands  for  no  ones  or  units.  That  in  the  combination  1 1 
the  first  I  stands  for  i  (group  of)  ten,  and  the  second  i 
stands  for  one  unit.  That  12  stands  for  i  ten  and  2 
units,  etc.  Finally,  that  20  stands  for  2  tens  and  no 
units. 

There  will  be  no  difficulty  in  illustrating  21,  22,  23, 
etc.,  31,  32,  33,  etc.,  in  the  same  manner,  by  means  of 
the  tied  bunches  of  ten,  up  to  ten  tens,  or  100.  The 
children  should  then  understand  clearly,  without  a  for- 
mal statement,  that  the  figure  in  the  second  order  from 
the  right  tells  how  many  tens,  and  the  figure  in  the  first 
order  how  many  ones,  there  are  in  a  number. 

The  following  tables  can  be  used  to  advantage  as 
review  exercises,  both  in  oral  and  written  work,  having 
the  children  fill  the  blanks: 


10  -f  I  or  14-10  = 

9-|-2or2-f  9:= 
8  +  3  or  3  +  8  = 
7  +  4  or  4+  7  = 
6-1-  5  or  5+    6  = 


II  -f-  I   or   I  -j-  II  = 

10  -(-  2  or  2  -|-  10  = 

9  +  3  or  3+    9  = 
8  +  4  or  4+    8  = 

7  +  5  or  5  +    7  = 
6+    6  = 


therefore. 

II  —  I         ; 

II  —  10 

( 

II  —  2  — 

II  —    9 

<( 

II  — 3- 

II         8 

(( 

1 1  —  4  — 

II—    7 

(( 

II-5  — 

II         6 

therefore, 

12  —  I  — 

12—  II 

12  —  2 

,         12—10 

12  —  3  — 

;        12—  9 

12  —  4  — 

,        12-   8 

12  —  5- 

12        7 

12  —  6  = 

ii8 


ARITHMETIC. 


12  -|-  I  or  I  -j-  12 

II  -[-  2  or  2  -I-  II  ■ 

IO  +  3  or  3  -I-  lo 

9  +  4  or  4  +  9 

8  +  5  or  5  +  8 

7  -)-  6  or  6  -f-  7 


13+  I  or  I  +  13 

12  -(-  2  or  2  -)-  12 

11+3  or  3  +  II 

10  -f  4  or  4  -]-  10 

9  +  5  or  5  +  9 

8  +  6  or  6  +  8 

7+  7 


14  -)-  I  or  I  +  14 

13  +  2  or  2+13: 
12  +  3  or  3  +  12 
ii-|-4  or  4-j-ii- 
10+5  or  5+10 
9  -f-  6  or  6  -(-  9 
8  +  7  or  7  +  8 


15+  I  or  1  +  15^ 
14  -f-  2  or  2  -(-  14 
13  +  3  or  3+  13 
12  -j--  4  or  4  -f-  12  : 
II  -f  5  or  5  +  II  : 
10  -j-  6  or  6  -(-  10  : 
9  +  7  or  7  +  9 
8-4-  8 


16  +  I  or  I  4-  16  : 

15  +  2  or  2  +  15 

14  +  3  or  3+14 
13  +  4  or  4+  13 
12+  5  or  5  +  12 


therefore, 

13       I- 

13  — 

12 

n 

13  —  2—     , 

13  — 

1 1 

(( 

13—3  — 

13  — 

10 

(( 

13  —  4—     > 

13  — 

9 

(( 

13  -  5  - 

13 

8 

(( 

13-6 

13  — 

7 

therefore, 

14— I — 

14  — 

13 

(( 

14  — 2  _ 

14 

12 

(« 

14  —  3  — 

14  — 

II 

(( 

14  —  4  — 

14 

10 

(( 

14-5-     - 

14  — 

9 

(( 

14  —  6 

14 

8 

(( 

14—7  — 

therefore, 

15  — I- 

;       15- 

14 

<( 

15  —  2  — 

15  — 

13 

<( 

15-3  — 

15- 

12 

(( 

15-4  — 

15  — 

II 

(( 

15-5  = 

15 

10 

(C 

15-6 

15  — 

9 

<< 

15-7- 

15  — 

8 

therefore, 

16       I  — 

;       16 

15 

(< 

16—2 

16 

14 

<( 

16-3 

;       16 

13 

<< 

16  4  rr= 

16 

12 

(( 

16-5 

16 

II 

<( 

16       6  — 

16 

10 

((• 

16-7 

16 

9 

(( 

16      8  — 

therefore, 

17— I  — 

17  - 

16 

<( 

17  — 2_ 

17  — 

15 

<( 

^l-li  — 

17- 

14 

(( 

17  —  4  — 

17  — 

13 

(( 

17-5- 

17- 

12 

SECOND   YEAR  COURSE. 


119 


II  -f  6  or  6  +  II  ^ 

10+7  or  7  -f-  10  = 
9  +  8  or  8+    9  = 


I7  +  I 

or 

1  + 

17 

16  +  2 

or 

2  + 

16 

15  +  3 

or 

3  + 

15 

14  +  4 

or 

4+14 

13  +  5 

or 

5  + 

13 

12  +  6 

or 

6  + 

12 

II  +  7 

or 

7  + 

II 

10  +  8 

or 

8  + 

10 

9  + 

9 

18+  I   or  I  +  18 

17  -j-  2  or  2-1-17 

16 -h  3  or  3  -f  16 

15+4  or  4+  15; 

14  +  5  or  5  -f  14 

13-f  6  or  6-1-  13 

12  -|-  7  or  7  -)-  12 

II  +  8  or  8+  II  : 

10  -f-  9    or  9  -f-  lO: 


19  -f  I  or  I  -f  I9  — 
I8 -f  2  or  2  +  18  = 
17  +  3  or  3+  17  = 
16  -j-  4  or  4  -j-  16  = 
15  +  5  or  5+  15  = 
14  +  6  or  6  -f-  14  =: 
n^l  or  7+13=^ 
12  -f-  8  or  8  -f-  12  = 

II  +  9  or  9  -|-  II  =r 
10  4-  10  = 


;         therefore, 

17-6: 

(( 

17-  1-- 

(( 

17-8. 

;         therefore, 

18—  I: 

<( 

18  -2i 

(( 

18-3  = 

(< 

18  —  41 

(( 

18-5. 

(( 

18—6  = 

C( 

18-7^ 

(< 

18       8. 

(( 

18      9z 

;          therefore, 

19   -  I  -- 

<( 

19  —  2- 

(( 

19-3  = 

<( 

19  —  4  = 

(( 

19-5  = 

(( 

19  —  6  - 

<< 

19  -  7  z 

<< 

19       8z 

<( 

19—93 

;          therefore. 

20 —    I 

(( 

20  —    2 

(( 

20—3 

(( 

20  —    4 

<( 

20  —    5 

(( 

20—6 

(< 

20—    7 

<( 

20—8 

t( 

20—9 

(( 

20  —  10 

17 
17 
17 


18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 


II  = 

10  =r 
9  = 


17  = 

16  = 

15  = 

14  = 

13  = 
12  z= 

II  =: 

10  = 


19- 

18  = 

19  — 

17  = 

19  — 

16  = 

19  — 

15- 

19  - 

14. 

19  — 

13  = 

19- 

12  - 

19  — 

II  - 

19  — 

10  - 

20- 

-19 

20  - 

-  18 

20  - 

-17 

20  - 

-  16 

20- 

-15 

20- 

-  14 

20   - 

13 

20- 

-  12 

20  - 

-  II 

Do  not  attempt  to  teach  the  combinations  and  separa- 
tions in   this  complete  way  beyond  the   total   of   20  at 


I20  ARITHMETIC. 

this  point.  The  class  should  be  drilled,  however,  before 
taking  up  the  subjects  of  multiplication  and  division, 
on  adding  and  subtracting  the  digital  numbers  to  and 
from  all  numbers  within  the  limits  of  lOO. 

Special  drill  in  addition  should  be  given  to  those 
combinations  by  which  the  addition  of  the  digit  carries 
the  total  into  the  ten  next  higher  than  the  number  to 
which  the  digit  is  added ;  as,  for  example,  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

_3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

15 

15 

^5 

15 

15 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

14 
6 

14 
7 

14 
8 

14 
9 

13 
7 

13 
8 

13 
9 

12 
8 

12 
9 

II 

9 

SECOND   YEAR  COURSE,  121 

Similar  tables  for  each  ten  numbers,  21  to  29,  31  to 
39,  etc.,  up  to  91  to  99,  should  be  written  on  the 
board,  and  the  class  should  be  drilled  on  them  until  all 
can  give  the  results  instantly  without  counting. 

Drill  the  class  also  in  adding  columns  of  digital  num- 
bers whose  totals  shall  be  100  or  less;  and  teach  the 
pupils  to  write  the  totals  at  the  foot  of  the  column 
properly,  with  the  tmit  figure  of  the  sum  directly  under 
the  column  added. 

Commence  with  a  few  numbers  at  a  time,  and  extend 
the  columns  to  greater  and  greater  length  as  the  class 
advances  in  proficiency. 

In  adding  a  column, — for  example,  the  one  in  3 

the   margin, — do   not   allow  a  child   to   say,    "6  2 

and   8   are   14;    14  and  4  are   18;    18  and   i   are  5 

19,"  etc.;  but  teach  him  to  speak  the  results  of  7 

his    mental    additions    only,    thus:     ''6,    14,    18,  9 

19,   28,  35,   40,   42,   45."  I 

Drill  on  similar  examples  until    the    class  can  4 

add  long  columns  rapidly  and  accurately.      Have  8 

the  columns  added  both  from  bottom  to  top  and  6 

from  top  to  bottom.      By  changing  the  top  and  45 

bottom  figures  only,  an  entirely  new  set  of  com- 
binations are  formed,  whichever  way  the  column  may  be 
added.  In  this  way,  the  teacher  can  present  a  very 
large  number  of  blackboard  exercises  for  the  class  with 
a  comparatively  small  expenditure  of  time  and  labor  on 
his  own  part. 

In  the  business  world,  the  accountant  is  called  upon 
to  use  addition  more  frequently,  as  a  rule,  than  all  the 
other  fundamental  processes  combined.  It  is  there- 
fore of  the  utmost  importance  that  proficiency  in  this 
respect    should    be    strictly  demanded,    and    practice    in 

E.  M.—W. 


1 2  2  ARITHME  TIC. 

the  addition  of  columns  of  figures  should  commence  as 
soon  as  the  child  is  able  to  combine  numbers.  If  the 
drill  on  the  primary  combinations  in  addition  has  been 
thorough,  the  children  should  be  able,  in  a  very  short 
time,  to  add  long  columns  accurately  as  fast  or  faster 
than  they  can  utter  the  consecutive  additions  aloud. 
The  only  way  to  learn  to  add  accurately  and  rapidly  is 
through  much  practice ;  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
continue  this  class  of  exercises  for  some  time,  and  even 
after  taking  up  other  steps. 

The  only  difficulty  in  teaching  the  subtraction  of  digits 
from  the  numbers  between  lO  and  lOO  will  be  found  in 
cases  where  the  digital  number  exceeds  the  figure  in 
the  unit's  place  of  the  minuend.  This  difficulty  can  be 
readily  overcome  by  continual  practice  on  such  subtrac- 
tions. Teach  the  children  in  such  cases  to  add  ten  to  the 
units  of  the  minuend  before  subtracting  the  digit  num- 
ber, and  to  subtract  one  from  the  tens  of  the  minuend  to 
obtain  the  tens  of  the  answer.  To  familiarize  this  rule, 
give  a  long  series  of  exercises,  retaining  first  the  same 
units'  figure,  and  then  the  same  tens'  figure,  of  the  min- 
uend throughout,  while  varying  the  tens  in  the  first  case 
and  the  units  in  the  second,  and  using  as  a  subtrahend 
the  digital  numbers  in  succession.  The  following  exam- 
ples will  serve  as  a  guide  for  this  work : 


21 

31 

41 

51 

6i 

71 

8i 

91 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

22 

32 

42 

52 

62 

72 

82 

92 

3 

3 

3 

3 
Etc., 

etc. 

3 
etc. 

3 

3 

3 

SECOND   YEAR  COURSE.  I  23 


21 

2 

22  - 

3 

23 
4 

24 
5 

1 

26 
7 

27 
8 

28 
9 

31 

2 

32 
3 

33 
4 

34 
5 

Etc., 

etc., 

^1 

,  etc. 

36 

7 

37 
8 

38 
9 

Tables  similar  to  the  following,  embracing  30  to  38, 
40  to  48,  etc.,  up  to  90  to  98,  should  be  written  on  the 
board  and  used  as  a  drill  exercise  in  subtracting.  These 
tables  may  be  learned  in  regular  order,  but  promiscuous 
exercises  on  them  should  also  be  given. 


20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

23 
4 

23 

5 

23 
6 

23 
7 

23 
8 

23 
9 

24 
5 

24 
6 

24 

7 

24 
8 

24 
9 

25 
6 

25 
7 

25 
8 

25 
9 

26 

26 

26 

7 

8 

9 

27 
8 

27 
9 

28 
9 

1 24  ARITHME  TIC. 

Drill  also  on  adding  and  subtracting  by  tens  to  and 
from   each  number  within  the  limits  of  10  and   lOO. 

Up  to  this  point,  the  children  have  been  taught  to 
consider  numbers  as  paiis  to  be  combined  and  separated. 
They  are  now  to  study  the  same  numbers  in  their  rela- 
tions as  factors.  In  introducing  these  new  processes  of 
multiplication  and  division,  the  principle  of  developing 
ideas  before  words  should  control,  and  the  knowledge 
already  gained  should  be  used  as  a  stepping-stone  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  new  ideas.  For  example,  the  child 
already  knows  that  2  +  2  +  2  =  6;  also,  that  3  +  3  =  6. 
With  this  knowledge  as  a  basis,  it  is  very  easy  to  show 
him  that  three  times  2  are  6,  and  that  two  times  3  are 
6.  Thus,  the  child's  knowledge  of  addition  is  used  in 
teaching  him  multiplication.  This  seems  much  more 
rational  than  at  once  plunging  into  the  multiplication 
table,  and,  by  dint  of  incessant  repetition,  memorizing 
the  combinations  of  a  host  of  factors  and  products.  By 
the  first  method,  the  child  learns  Jiow  the  product  is 
formed,  and  ivJiy  3X2  or  2X3  =  6.  By  the  second 
method,  he  simply  remembers — if  he  can  remember — 
the  formula. 

It  is  not  to  be  disputed  that  the  multiplication  table 
should  be  memorized,  so  that  any  two  digital  factors 
being  given,  the  product  shall  be  given  instantly  and 
without  adding;  but  this  mastery  of  the  table  should  be 
a  gradual  process,  and  each  successive  product  should 
be  properly  analyzed  and  introduced.  If  this  plan  of 
teaching  be  adopted,  it  will  be  found  that  the  children 
understand  what  they  are  studying,  that  they  learn  more 
rapidly,  and  that  they  remember  the  tables  better  after 
they  are  learned. 

We  submit    the   following  method  of    treating  Lesson 


SECOND   YEAR  COURSE.  I  25 

XXXIX,    and  suggest   that   each  of   the  succeeding  les- 
sons in  multipHcation  be  taught  in  a  similar  manner: 

Illustrate  the  work  by  practical  demonstrations  before 
the  eyes  of  the  class,  using  the  numeral  frame  and 
various  objects,  as  in  teaching  addition  and  subtraction. 
At  first,  use  the  denominations  balls,  apples,  shells, 
blocks,  etc.,  illustrating  with  the  objects  themselves; 
then  use  denominations  without  illustrating ;  and,  finally, 
use  the  abstract  numbers  simply,  thus : 

How  many  are  i  ball  and   i  ball?     {Illustrating  with  balls.') 

How  many  are   i  horse  and  i  horse  ? 

How  many  are   i   and   i  ? 

How  many  are  two   I's?     One  2? 

How  many  are  two  times   i  ?     One  time  2  ? 

Use  a  number  of  different  objects  in  illustrating  this 
step  ;  and  when  the  answers  are  instantaneous,  write  the 
final  ones  on  the  board,  as  they  appear  in  the  table  of 
Lesson  XXXIX,   thus : 

1  time  2  is  2  ; 

2  times   I   are  2. 

Then  proceed  by  the  same  steps  to  form  the  next 
product : 

How  many  are  i  block,   i  block,  and   i  block  ?     {Illustrating.) 
How  many  are   i   doll,    i   doll,  and  i   doll  ? 
How  many  are   i   and   i   and   i  ? 
,     How  many  are  three   I's  ?     One  3? 

How  many  are  three  times  i  ?     One  time  3  ? 

Place  the  final  answers  in  the  column  on  the  board,  as 

before : 

I  time  3  is  3; 

3  times   I  are  3. 


1 26  ARITHME  TIC. 

In  a  similar  way,  lead  the  children  to  form  the  entire 
table,  writing  each  successive  product  on  the  board  as  it 
is  formed. 

If  a  pupil  hesitate  in  giving  a  product,  he  should  be 
indulged  at  first,  and  allowed  to  work  out  the  answer  in 
his  own  mind  by  addition  ;  in  other  words,  to  exercise 
his  reasoning  powers.  But,  as  soon  as  possible,  put  a 
stop  to  the  necessity  of  adding  in  order  to  find  a 
product.  This  can  be  done  only  by  constant  drill  on 
the  table  until  it  is  thoroughly  memorized.  Addition  is 
useful  in  leading  children  to  see  how  the  products  are 
formed,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  final 
aim  in  teaching  multiplication  is  to  train  the  child's 
memory  so  that,  any  two  digital  factors  being  _given,  the 
product  will  instantly  come  to  his  mind  without  adding. 

More  exercises  are  required  for  purposes  of  drill  than 
can  possibly  be  crowded  into  a  primary  text-book, 
which  should  be  used  only  as  a  guide.  The  teacher 
should  therefore  supplement  largely  the  exercises  in  the 
book  under  each  table. 

Division  is  simply  the  reverse  of  multiplication,  and 
as  such  may  be  easily  taught  by  utilizing  the  child's  ac- 
quired information  as  to  the  latter  process.  For  exam- 
ple, you  taught  the  child  that  3X2  or  2X3^6  by 
presenting  to  his  eye  three  2's  and  two  3's,  thus: 

2  -f  2  -f  2  =  6 ; 
3  +  3  =  6. 

It  is  very  easy,  then,  to  lead  him  to  see  by  inspec- 
tion that  there  are  three  2's  in  6,  and  two  3's  in  6,  and 
he  will  readily  answer  the  questions: 

How  many  times  2  in  6? 
2  in  6  how  many  times  ? 


SECOND   YEAR  COURSE.  12/ 

How  many  times  3  in  6  ? 
3  in  6  how  many  times  ? 

We  would  suggest,  therefore,  that  in  teaching  the 
successive  lessons  in  division,  the  tables  of  the  corre- 
spoitding  lessons  in  multiplication  be  used  as  a  basis. 
For  example,  in  forming  the  table  of  Lesson  LIII, 
use  the  table  of  Lesson  XL  as  a  basis. 

As  in  teaching  multiplication,  the  processes  should  be 
illustrated  by  means  of  the  numeral  frame  and  objects 
of  various  sorts,  at  the  first  step,  then  concrete  numbers 
should  be  used,  and  finally  abstract  numbers.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  method  suggested  for  treating  Lesson 
LIII: 

How  many  are  2  times   i  ball?     (Lesson  XL.) 

How  many  times   i  ball  in  2  balls  ? 

How  many  times  2  balls  in  2  balls  ? 

How  many  are  2  times   i  house  ? 

How  many  times  i  house  in  2  houses  .'* 

How  many  times  2  houses  in  2  houses  ? 

How  many  are  2  times   i  ? 

How  many  times  i   in  2  ? 

How  manv  times  2  in  2  ? 

It  is  not  thought  necessary  to  form  the  table  of  I's 
in  division  ;  therefore,  write  only  the  answer  to  the  last 
question  on  the  board,  thus : 

2  in  2,   I  time. 
Proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  find  the  next  quotient : 

How  many  are  two  times  2  gloves  ? 
How  many  times  2  gloves  in  4  gloves  ? 
How  many  are  2  times  2  farms  ? 
How  many  times  2  farms  in  4  farms? 
How  many  are  2  times  2  ? 
How  many  times  2  in  4  ? 


1 2  8  ARITHME  TIC. 

Write  the  answer  under  the  preceding  one,  thus : 

2  in  4,  2  times. 

In  the  succeeding  steps,  use  both  factors  as  divisors 
in  forming  the  division  table,   thus : 

How  many  are  3  times  2  pencils  ? 
How  many  are  2  times  3  pencils  ? 
How  many  times  2  pencils  in  6  pencils  ? 
How  many  times  3  pencils  in  6  pencils  ? 
How  many  are  3  times  2  wagons? 
How  many  are  2  times  3  wagons  ? 
How  many  times  2  wagons  in  6  wagons  ? 
How  many  times  3  wagons  in  6  wagons? 
How  many  are  3  times  2  ? 
How  many  are  2  times  3  ? 
How  many  times  2  in  6  ? 
How  many  times  3  in  6  ? 

Write  the  last  two  answers  on  the  board,  thus : 

2  in  6,  3  times ; 

3  in  6,  2  times. 

Proceed  in  like  manner  to  complete  the  table  of  2's 
and  the  succeeding  tables  of  division.  It  will  not  be 
necessary  to  memorize  the  division  tables  if  work  on  the 
multiplication  tables  has  been  thorough.  For,  if  the 
latter  have  been  mastered,  when  a  product  and  one  of 
its  factors  are  given,  the  children  should  be  able  to  give 
the  other  factor  instantly  after  they  have  learned  the 
simple  process  of  division. 

As  in  multiplication,  the  exercises  under  each  lesson 
in  the  book  should  be  supplemented  by  others  until 
every  step  of  the  table  is  thoroughly  learned  and  im- 
pressed on  the  memory. 


SECOND   YEAR  COURSE.  1 29 

For  convenience  in  written  exercises,  the  signs  of 
multiplication  and  division  may  be  taught  as  soon  as 
those  subjects  are  taken  up. 

The  Review  Lessons  from  LXII  to  LXXVIII  in- 
clusive should  receive  careful  attention,  and  no  child 
should  be  allowed  to  go  into  an  advanced  class  whose 
work  on  review  is  unsatisfactory.  It  follows  that  he 
does  not  fully  understand  his  work  thus  far,  or  that  he  is 
insufficiently  drilled,  and  in  either  case  it  is  folly  to  give 
him  more  difficult  work  to  do,  and  work  that  presumes 
thoroughness  in  what  has  gone  before. 

Lesson  LXII,  except  the  table,  and  Lessons  LXIX 
and  LXXI  embrace  what  is  commonly  known  as 
**  lightning  calculations."  They  should  be  extended  at 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher,  and  the  four  processes  of 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division  should 
be  included.  It  is  well  to  vary  the  order  of  the  pro- 
cesses in  different  examples.  In  schools  where  the 
teacher  is  pushed  for  time,  in  place  of  reciting  these 
exercises  orally,  they  may  be  used  as  slate  or  board 
exercises.  Commence  the  work  by  pausing  after  each 
process  a  few  seconds.  Make  these  pauses  shorter  and 
shorter  as  the  class  becomes  skilled,  and  have  only  the 
final  results  uttered  or  written.  If  a  class  is  sent  to 
the  board  to  work,  number  the  pupils  in  consecutive 
order  as  they  stand  at  the  board,  and  give  the  odd  num- 
bers one  example  and  the  even  numbers  another,  in 
order  to  prevent  copying  or  prompting. 

In  teaching  the  tables  in  Lessons  LXXIX  to 
LXXXVIII  inclusive,  the  teacher  should  supply  him- 
self, so  far  as  possible,  with  the  actual  measures  of 
value,  weight,  etc.,  and  demonstrate  before  the  class,  for 
example,    that    **2    pints   make    I   quart"    by  filling   the 


1 30  ARITHME  TIC. 

pint  cup  twice,  and  pouring  its  contents  into  the  quart 
cup.  A  very  good  plan  in  teaching  many  of  these  tables 
is  simply  to  teach  the  names  of  the  different  measures, 
and  have  the  children  find  out  for  themselves  by  actual 
experiment  in  the  class-room  how  many  of  one  measure 
it  takes  to  make  the  next  higher.  The  tables  taught  in 
this  way  will  be  learned  with  interest  and  will  be  reineni- 
bcred.  Whereas,  if  simply  made  a  matter  of  rote,  they 
are  apt  to  convey  but  little  information ;  consequently, 
they  are  devoid  of  interest  and   are  speedily  forgotten. 


XI. 

A  RITHME  TIC.  —  CONCL  UDED. 

Third  Year. 

EFORE  beginning  the  advance  work  of  the  third 
year,  give  the  class  a  thorough  review  of  the 
Primary  Arithmetic.  It  will  be  sufficient,  ordinarily,  to 
have  the  children  perform  the  work  of  the  regular 
review  lessons  of  that  book,  which  are  to  be  found  on 
pages  23  to  26,  38  to  40,  52  to  55,  66  to  83,  inclusive, 
and  on  page  94.  As  before  stated,  pupils  who  find  any 
difficulty  in  solving  the  problems  contained  in  these 
review  lessons  are  not  prepared  to  advance,  and  should 
be  kept  in  the  Primary  Arithmetic  class  until  they  are 
thoroughly  proficient.  Bear  in  mind  that,  in  the  study 
of  Arithmetic  especially,  one  step  must  be  mastered 
before  another  is  attempted.  Progress  is  necessarily 
slow,  and  the  golden  rule  is,    "Make  haste  slowly.'^ 

Mental  and  Written  Arithmetic  should  be  taught  to- 
gether to  save  labor  and  time.  Therefore,  after  com- 
pleting the  review  of  the  Primary,  as  suggested,  have 
the  class  begin  work  in  both  the  New  Intellectual  and 
the  New  Practical  Arithmetics.  Let  the  mental  and 
written  instruction  alternate,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
have  the  work  in  the  Intellectual  Arithmetic  precede 
work  on  the  corresponding  subject  in  the  Practical 
Arithmetic.  It  is  proposed  to  complete  the  work  in 
both  books  as  far  as  the  subject  of  fractions  during  this 
Third  Year. 

(131) 


1 3  2  ARITHME  TIC. 

A  clear  understanding  of  the  terms  used  in  arithmetic 
is  absolutely  necessary,  and  all  definitions  should  be 
carefully  memorized.  Principles  and  rules  should  also 
be  required  as  they  are  given  in  the  book,  because  these 
can  not  be  given  clearly  in  fewer  words.  The  thought, 
of  course,  must  be  explained  with  great  care  to  avoid 
''parrot  work,"  caution  against  which  can  not  be  re- 
peated too  often.  But,  after  the  thought  is  grasped, 
demand  exactness  of  expression,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  important  aims  in  the  study  of  arithmetic. 

Before  beginning  the  third  year's  work,  the  children 
are  supposed  to  understand  the  four  fundamental  pro- 
cesses, and  to  be  able  to  solve  simple  problems  within 
the  limits  of  lOO.  They  are  now  supposed,  also,  to 
have  arrived  at  an  age  when  they  may  properly  be  re- 
quired to  analyze  the  different  processes ;  that  is,  to 
state  clearly  and  concisely  each  step  of  a  solution. 

In  teaching  analysis,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow 
repetitions,  or  indeed  any  unnecessary  verbiage.  Wordy 
analyses  not  only  involve  a  waste  of  time,  but  they 
obscure  the  reasoning  rather  than  make  it  clear.  The 
old  method  of  requiring  a  child  to  separate  his  analysis 
into  four  formal  steps,  two  of  which  were  usually  need- 
less repetitions,  has  been  abandoned  by  all  advanced 
teachers,  who  have  adopted  in  its  place  the  simplest  and 
most  concise  form  of  statement  consistent  with  clear 
reasoning.  The  Model  Solutions  in  the  Intellectual  and 
Practical  Arithmetics  give  all  the  steps  necessary  to  a 
thorough  understanding  of  a  problem,  and  give  them  as 
concisely,  perhaps,  as  can  well  be  done.  The  children 
should  be  required  to  follow  these  models  in  their  exer- 
cises in  analysis. 

Exercises  in  analysis  should  not  be  confined  to  work 


THIRD   YEAR   COURSE.  1 33 

in  mental  arithmetic.  The  written  work  should  be 
analyzed  in  the  same  way.  The  latter  differs  from  the 
former  only  in  that  it  requires  mechanical  work  (the 
operation)  in  addition  to  the  mental  work.  Both  forms 
of  work  are  useful,    and  each  has  a  particular  purpose. 

The  tables  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 
division  in  the  Intellectual  and  Practical  Arithmetics, 
carry  the  work  a  few  steps  beyond  the  corresponding 
tables  in  the  Primary  book.  All  of  these  tables  should 
be  learned  and  recited,  but  the  multiplication  table 
should  be  memorized  so  that  each  product,  up  to  12  X 
12=144,  can  be  given  by  every  member  of  the  class 
the  instant  that  the  factors  are  presented. 

Prepare  for  the  class  as  large  a  number  and  variety 
of  original  exercises,  both  mental  and  written,  as  you 
possibly  can.  Such  original  exercises  are  far  better  in 
certain  respects  than  those  given  in  any  book  ;  for,  de- 
spite every  caution,  answers  to  the  latter  are  liable  to 
be  copied  from  keys,  or  marked  in  the  old  books,  and 
thus  the  object  of  the  exercises  is  defeated. 

It  is  unwise  to  assign  work  in  arithmetic  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  children  out  of  school  hours,  for  almost 
invariably  those  children  who  most  need  the  exercise 
will  procure  assistance  in  place  of  endeavoring  to  do  the 
work  themselves,  and  again  the  object  of  the  exercises 
is  defeated.  The  consequence  is  that  the  class  develops 
very  unevenly ;  some  of  the  pupils  making  rapid  mental 
progress,  and  others  dragging  behind  hopelessly.  Much 
supposed  natural  incapacity  may  be  suddenly  removed 
by  the  discovery  that  those  "naturally  incapable"  are 
neglecting  their  work.  The  teacher  should  therefore 
carefully  watch  them,  and  see  that  they  actually  perform 
the  work  assigned  them. 


1 3  4  ARITHME  TIC. 


Fourth  Year. 


In  the  Fourth  Year,  the  class  should  continue  alter- 
nate recitations  in  mental  and  written  arithmetic,  and  it 
is  suggested  that  the  work  be  extended  to  the  subject 
of  ratio  in  the  Intellectual,  and  to  percentage  in  the 
Practical,  Arithmetic.  That  is,  the  arithmetical  work 
of  the  entire  year  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  fractions, 
both  common  and  decimal.  This  includes  the  work 
ordinarily  performed  in  graded  schools  during  the  fifth 
year. 

In  teaching  fractions,  illustrate  by  actual  objects,  as  in 
the  first  steps  in  teaching  whole  numbers.  Show  the 
class  that  there  are  two  halves  in  one  whole  apple  by 
dividing  an  apple  into  two  equal  parts.  Demonstrate 
the  importance  of  the  word  equal  by  dividing  an  apple, 
or  other  object,  into  two  parts  which  are  not  equal. 
Neither  part,    in  this  case,   will  be  a  half. 

Illustrate  \,  \,  \,  \,  etc.,  in  the  same  way.  By  this 
method,  the  class  at  once  gain  a  clear,  accurate  idea  of 
fractional  parts.  They  see  that  f,  f,  f,  etc.,  make  one 
whole,  or  unit,  without  waste  of  words. 

The  difference  between  a  proper  and  an  improper  frac- 
tion should  be  practically  illustrated,  and  the  reason  for 
so  naming  the  latter  will  be  immediately  apparent. 
Continue  to  illustrate  each  step  by  objects  as  you 
advance. 

Before  giving  Lesson  XXVII  of  the  Intellectual  Arith- 
metic to  the  class,  illustrate  with  objects  the  fact  that 
the  same  fractional  part  of  a  unit  can  be  expressed  in  a 
variety  of  terms;  that  is,  by  a  variety  of  numerators 
and  denominators  (see  definition  of  "terms,"  page  47, 
Intellectual   Arithmetic).      Thus,    \   of  an   apple   can    be 


FOURTH  YEAR   COURSE.  1 35 

divided  into  two  equal  parts,  and  the  \  becomes  \\  or, 
it  can  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  and  the  \  be- 
comes -| ;  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  \  becomes  |-, 
etc.  The  class  will  readily  see  that  \,  J,  f,  |-,  etc.,  all 
express  the  same  quantity;  /.  e.,  ^  of  one  apple.  Con- 
tinue the  illustration  by  the  division  of  \,  \,  ^,  etc.,  into 
two,  three,  four,  etc.,  equal  parts.  When  the  children 
understand  this,  they  can  easily  understand,  also,  what 
is  meant  by   "reducing  a  fraction  to  its  lowest  terms." 

The  use  of  objects  should  be  abandoned  whenever  the 
teacher  finds  that  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  subject,  but  it  may  be  found  advis- 
able to  resume  this  method  occasionally  when  any  un- 
usual difficulty  presents  itself. 

It  may  occur  to  some  teachers  that  there  is  too  great 
disparity  in  the  amount  of  work  assigned  for  the  third 
and  fourth  years.  It  is  true  that,  as  far  as  the  number 
of  pages  covered  in  the  Practical  Arithmetic  is  con- 
cerned, there  is  a  disparity ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  work  assigned  for  the  third  year  is  very 
largely  a  review  and  an  extension  of  principles  taught  in 
the  two  preceding  years.  Whereas,  the  subject  of  frac- 
tions opens  an  entirely  new  and  quite  a  difficult  field ; 
and  the  work  assigned  for  the  fourth  year  will  be  found 
ample,  even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  to 
occupy  the  time. 


Fifth  Year. 


Percentage  and  its  applications  are  made  the  special 
objects  of  study  this  year.  The  subject  of  ratio  is  in- 
troduced in  the  Intellectual  before  percentage;  but,  if 
thought  best,  it  may  be  omitted  until  that  subject  is  taken 


136  ARITHMETIC. 

up  in  the  Practical  Arithmetic,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Sixth  Year. 

It  is  true  that  the  study  of  percentage,  and  its  appH- 
cations,  possesses  pecuhar  value  for  those  pupils  who 
intend  to  follow  certain  mercantile  pursuits ;  but  a  fair 
knowledge  of  the  subject  is  valuable  to  men  of  almost 
every  occupation,  and  should  therefore  receive  careful 
attention. 

The  subject  is  so  fully  treated  in  the  Practical  Arith- 
metic that  additional  explanation  here  seems  uncalled 
for.  Lessons  in  the  Intellectual  Arithmetic,  as  before 
suggested,  should  precede  the  corresponding  lessons  in 
the  Practical  Arithmetic. 

Unless  the  subject  of  ratio  be  postponed,  the  In- 
tellectual Arithmetic  should  be  finished  this  year. 


Sixth  Year. 


The  work  of  this  year,  from  ratio  to  the  close  of  the 
Practical  Arithmetic,  with  the  exception  of  arithmetical 
and  geometrical  progression,  is  essentially  practical  in 
nature,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  subjects  treated  is 
useful,  if  not  necessary,  to  all. 

The  number  of  examples  given  in  the  book  is  neces- 
sarily limited,  owing  to  the  number  of  subjects  treated, 
and  to  the  condensed  form  demanded  in  a  school  text- 
book. The  examples  in  the  book  should  be  largely 
supplemented  by  the  teacher,  and  the  latter  should  en- 
deavor to  make  his  original  exercises  as  practical  as 
possible. 

It  has  been  frequently  suggested  that  teachers  should 
supply   exercises    for    their   classes   in   addition   to  those 


SIXTH  YEAR   COURSE.  1 37 

given  in  the  several  text-books.  Many  teachers  may 
find  it  impossible  to  devote  the  time  necessary  for  the 
proper  preparation  of  such  exercises ;  and,  unless  the 
exercises  are  most  carefully  prepared  and  graded,  they 
will  usually  be  found  of  little  service.  To  such  teachers 
the  use  of  *' Ray's  New  Test  Examples  in  Arithmetic" 
is  recommended,  which  will  furnish  them  the  necessary 
number  and  variety  of  exercises  to  supplement  the  work 
of  each  year.  The  exercises  of  this  book  are  practical 
in  their  nature,  all  mere  puzzles  having  been  excluded. 
We  can  not  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  book  in  any 
better  way  than  by  quoting  from  the  preface  of  its 
author,  Mr.  B.  O.  M.  DeBeck,  formerly  a  teacher  in  the 
public  schools  of  Cincinnati.      He  says : 

"No  example  has  been  introduced  which  the  average 
pupil  can  not  solve  without  assistance,  and  no  solid 
progress  can  be  expected  unless  this  is  required. 

* '  The  examples  in  each  article  have  been  carefully 
graded,  the  first  few  being  suited  to  very  young  pupils, 
while  the  last  half  would  furnish  work  for  advanced 
pupils  whose  time  is  limited. 

**  Attention  is  called  to  examples  occuring  in  pairs, 
where  a  slight  variation  in  statement  changes  the  nature 
of  the  problem. 

*'In  each  article,  the  number  of  examples  presented 
is  made  to  depend  upon  the  difficulty  and  importance 
of  the  particular  subject  presented." 

The  book  covers  the  entire  ground  of  Ray's  New 
Practical  Arithmetic,  and  is  bound  in  two  forms, — with 
answers  and  without  answers.  The  latter,  if  so  desired, 
may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils ;  while  a  copy 
with  answers,  in  possession  of  the  teacher,  will  save  him 
much  time  and  trouble. 

E.  M.— 12. 


.I3S  ARITHMETIC. 

B  0  OK-KEEPING. 

If  the  older  pupils  have  the  time  and  the  inclination 
to  extend  their  mathematical  course  beyond  the  ordinary 
limits  of  the  common  school,  they  can  do  so  in  no  way 
that  will  afford  a  better  return  for  the  time  and  labor 
expended  than  by  taking  a  short  course  in  book- 
keeping. 

In  many  cities  and  towns,  book-keeping  is  made  a 
requirement  in  the  regular  course  of  the  public  schools ; 
but  the  necessity  of  the  study  is  fully  as  great  in  the 
country  schools,  owing  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  very 
general  lack  of  information  on  the  subject  in  country 
neighborhoods. 

A  knowledge  of  book-keeping  can  be  turned  to  prac- 
tical account  by  every  man  and  woman,  no  matter  what 
his  or  her  vocation  may  be.  Few  professional  men, 
farmers,  artisans,  or  tradesmen  are  able  to  keep  a  set  of 
books  for  themselves,  and  few  are  willing  or  able  to  pay 
a  clerk  for  the  purpose  of  having  their  accounts  accu- 
rately kept,  even  if  such  a  clerk  were  easily  obtained. 
Therefore,  these  classes  of  men  are  notoriously  poor 
**  business  men."  They  rarely  know  exactly  what  their 
financial  condition  is.  Debts  accumulate  unexpectedly ; 
collections  are  overlooked ;  and  notes  fall  due  at  the 
most  inconvenient  times,  without  any  preparation  having 
been  made  to  meet  them.  Confusion  in  financial  mat- 
ters usually  results,  sooner  or  later,  in  disaster,  and  all 
for  the  lack  of  a  little  system  and  order,  which  could 
readily  be  secured  by  a  knowledge  of  rudimentary  book- 
keeping, and  a  very  limited  expenditure  of  time  and 
trouble. 

Even  those  whose  affairs  can  be  managed  well  enough, 


B  0  OK-KEEriNG.  1 3  9 

in  their  opinion,  without  the  trouble  or  expense  of 
book-keeping,  must  appreciate  the  value  of  fully  under- 
standing the  accounts  of  the  store-keeper  and  others 
against  themselves.  Thus,  a  knowledge  of  book-keeping 
is  useful  to  nearly  every  one,  whether  the  books  kept 
are  his  own  or  another's. 

Not  only  the  accounts  of  the  profession,  the  farm,  and 
the  trade  should  be  accurately  kept,  but  also  the 
accounts  of  the  living  expenses  of  the  household,  for  in 
no  way  are  economy  and  thrift  more  certainly  made 
possible  and  encouraged.  With  the  figures  before  you, 
it  is  comparatively  easy  to  see  where  there  has  been  un- 
necessary outlay,  and  where  you  can  most  readily  cut 
down  expenses.  The  wife,  daughter,  or  son  can  and 
should  keep  these  household  accounts,  rather  than  the 
head  of  the  family,  whose  time,  generally,  is  too  fully 
occupied  with  other  affairs  to  give  these  proper  atten- 
tion. 

Women,  too,  in  the  present  day,  are  gradually  mak- 
ing their  way  into  the  book-keeping  situations  of  busi- 
ness houses  in  our  cities  and  towns.  In  the  cities  they 
are  regularly  educated  for  these  positions,  and  a  respect- 
able girl  who  is  so  educated  often  obtains  a  situation 
which  provides  a  comfortable  living  for  herself,  and  per- 
haps for  her  family  as  well,  in  place  of  being  forced  by 
a  lack  of  such  knowledge  to  accept  a  miserable  pittance 
of  two  or  three  dollars  a  week  as  an  overworked  shop- 
girl or  seamstress.  It  therefore  behooves  both  boys  and 
girls  to  add  a  knowledge  of  book-keeping  to  their  store 
of  useful  acquirements  whenever  it  is  made  possible  to 

do  so. 

A  knowledge  of  book-keeping  does  not  involve,  as 
some    seem   to   think,   the   necessity   of  a   two  or  three 


I40  ARITHMETIC. 

year's  course  at  a  business  college.  It  is  true  that  if  a 
man  intends  to  become  a  professional  book-keeper, — an 
expert, — such  a  course  is  advisable;  but  one  may  learn 
all  that  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  keep  an  ordinary  set 
set  of  accounts  in  a  perfectly  accurate  and  clear  manner 
by  a  few  months'  careful  study  of  a  manual  especially 
adapted  to  this  purpose.  The  Eclectic  Complete  Book- 
keeping is  just  such  a  manual.  The  few  necessary 
terms,  such  as  debit,  credit,  etc.,  the  classification  of 
accounts,  and  the  titles  of  accounts  are  carefully  and 
lucidly  explained.  The  various  books  necessary  are  de- 
scribed, and  sample  pages  of  each  are  shown.  Then, 
four  illustrative  sets  of  transactions  are  given,  two  of 
which  are  accompanied  by  the  corresponding  pages  of 
the  Day-book,  Journal,  Ledger,  Cash-book,  etc.,  with 
the  various  transactions  of  the  two  sets  properly 
"written  up."  With  these  models  before  him  for  refer- 
ence, the  student  is  required  to  write  up  properly  the 
transactions  of  the  two  remaining  sets,  and  also  certain 
particular  problems,  which  are  accompanied  by  particular 
instructions.  Various  suggestions  are  made  where  there 
is  a  choice  between  different  methods  of  entry,  and  the 
entire  subject  is  made  so  clear  and  simple  that  its 
thorough  understanding  presents  but  little  difficulty  to 
an  ordinary  mind. 

Samples  are  given  of  the  various  forms  of  commercial 
paper,  just  as  they  actually  appear,  in  script,  including 
notes,   drafts,   acceptances,    checks,   etc. 

The  business  of  joint  stock  companies  is  briefly  and 
clearly  explained,  and  sample  pages  of  the  Installment 
Scrip  Book,  Certificate  and  Transfer  Book,  and  the 
Capital  Stock  Ledger  are  presented. 

Special  accounts  and  books,  such  as  a  Pay  Roll,  Phy- 


BOOK-KEEPING.  I4I 

sician's  Diary,  Farm  Accounts,  Farm  Record,  Farm 
Register,  and  Family  Expense  Account  receive  brief 
treatment,  but  ample  to  enable  a  pupil  to  understand 
each  thoroughly,  and  to  keep  the  accounts  if  it  should 
become  necessary  to  do  so. 

The  entire  book  contains  less  than  150  pages  of  sub- 
ject-matter, and  can  be  thoroughly  mastered,  with  care- 
ful teaching,  in  a  few  months'  time.  The  manual  is 
accompanied  by  a  key,  which  will  enable  any  teacher  to 
master  the  subject  and  to  teach  it  without  the  least 
difficulty.  There  is  also  a  complete  set  of  book-keeping 
blanks,  consisting  of  a  Day-book,  Journal,  Ledger,  Cash- 
book,  and  Bill-book.  These  blanks,  which  are  in  book 
form,  have  been  expressly  prepared  to  accompany  the 
manual.  They  are  of  sufficient  size,  and  are  properly 
ruled  for  the  use  of  students  in  writing  up  the  work  re- 
quired by  the  manual. 


GEOGRAPHY 


XII. 

THE  ECLECTIC  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

COMPLAINT  Is  justly  made  that  children  ordinarily 
receive  but  little  benefit  from  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy in  our  common  schools.  Pupils  are  confused  by 
unintelligible  statements  about  ''imaginary  lines,"  the 
earth's  "turning  over,"  "zones,"  and  many  similar 
terms  and  expressions,  the  simple  statements  of  which 
convey  no  information  whatever  to  a  child's  mind.  The 
pupils  are  hurried  confusedly  through  mathematical, 
physical,  and  political  geography,  and  are  compelled  to 
memorize  the  words  of  many  definitions  concerning 
which  they  may  not  have  a  single  clear  idea.  They  are 
then  crammed  with  the  names  and  localities  of  places — 
many  of  them  so  unimportant  that  they  are  never 
heard  of  outside  of  the  school-room — and  with  endless 
statistics  of  areas,  populations,  and  crop  productions  im- 
possible to  remember.  Why  wonder  that  a  child  so 
taught  has  a  vague  idea  that  "the  equator  is  a  lion 
running  around  the  earth,"  a  definite  conviction  that 
Maine  is  yellow  and  New  Hampshire  red,  and  a  grave 
uncertainty  as  to  whether  the  population  of  the  United 
States  is   50,000,000  or  5,000,000! 

The  reason  such  poor  results  are  obtained  from  teach- 
ing geography  is  because  many  teachers  blindly  follow 
whatever  text-book  may  be  in  use,  sticking  persistently 
to  the  book,   and  never  offering   the  slightest  assistance 

E.  M.-i:j.  (145) 


146  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

to  their  classes  in  the  way  of  illustration  or  explanation. 
Thus,  even  if  the  book  happens  to  be  a  good  one,  it  is 
not  used,  as  it  should  be,  to  the  best  possible  advantage. 

The  teacher  should  make  the  subject  a  study,  first,  to 
decide  what  and  how  much  to  teach ;  and  second,  how 
to  teach  it  with  the  greatest  probability  of  successful 
results.  By  successful  results,  we  mean  so  that  children 
will  retain  a  store  of  information  which  will  be  useful  to 
them  in  after  life.  No  matter  what  text-book  is  used, 
it  should  be  used  only  as  a  guide,  and  its  subject-matter 
should  be  supplemented  or  cut  down  as,  in  the  teacher's 
judgment,  necessity  requires.  Text-books  are  made  to 
answer  the  general  demand,  but  each  teacher  must  be 
a  law  unto  himself  as  to  what  to  teach  and  how  to 
teach  it. 

We  repeat  the  warning  given  as  to  other  subjects, — 
not  to  talk  over  the  children's  heads.  By  this,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  meant  that  you  should  not  attempt  to 
develop  ideas,  although  these  ideas  involve  facts  beyond 
the  clear  appreciation  of  any  human  mind.  For  exam- 
ple, the  idea  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
involves  the  fact  that  we  are  whirling  about  a  center  at 
the  rate — at  the  equator — of  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
an  hour.  And  while  we  are  entirely  unable  to  perceive 
the  latter  fact  through  our  senses,  yet  this  should  not 
prevent  our  endeavor  to  give  the  children  a  clear  idea 
of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  once  in  twenty-four  hours. 
Astronomical  distances  are  still  more  inconceivable,  but 
that  fact  should  not  prevent  instruction  as  to  the  yearly 
journey  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  and  the  consequent 
change  of  seasons.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  chil- 
dren will  fully  comprehend  all  that  is  involved  in  the 
science  of  geography,  but  they  can  be  taught  in  simple 


PRIMARY  TEACHING.  1 47 

language,    and  by  means  of  practical  illustration,  to  un- 
derstand the  simple  facts  at  the  basis  of  the  science. 

The  subject  of  geography  opens  up  a  wide  and 
interesting  field  for  composition  work,  and  should  be 
thoroughly  utilized  in  this  direction.  The  two  branches 
mutually  assist  in  adding  to  the  interest  of  the  class  in 
both  studies,  and  information  put  into  writing  is  apt  to 
be  remembered,  while  that  which  is  the  result  of  the 
mere  memorizing  of  a  text-book  is  usually  soon  for- 
gotten. 

The  teacher  can  add  very  much  to  each  day's  recita- 
tion in  geography  by  reading  or  narrating  to  the  class 
little  incidents  or  interesting  facts  gleaned  from  history 
or  authentic  books  of  travels,  and  connected  with  cities 
or  localities.  This  plan,  in  addition  to  aiding  the 
memory,   relieves  the  subject  of   monotony. 

At  first  the  teaching  of  geography  should  be  oral. 
Many  facts  properly  included  under  this  head  should 
receive  preliminary  treatment  in  object  lessons,  such  as 
facts  concerning  the  different  kinds  of  soils  and  minerals, 
the  vegetable  and  animal  worlds,  etc.,  etc.  These  facts, 
if  properly  classified  and  taught,  prepare  the  way  for 
the  study  of  geography  proper,  which  should  not  be 
begun  until  the  child  is  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age.  It 
is  useless  and  injurious  to  crowd  a  multiplicity  of  sub- 
jects on  the  young  child ;  and,  up  to  the  age  named, 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  with  attendant  language 
and  object  lessons,  will  be  ample  to  occupy  the  time 
profitably. 

Teach  primary  geography  objectively  as  far  as  possible. 
A  large  school  globe  is  desirable,  but  if  it  is  not  to  be 
had,  a  ball  or  orange  may  be  made  to  answer  fairly 
well.       Molding-sand    can     be     used    to    advantage    for 


148  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

certain  purposes.  Walks  in  the  country,  with  talks 
about  the  hills  and  the  valleys,  the  flow  of  the  streams, 
the  vegetation  and  the  soil,'  the  state  of  the  weather  and 
the  season  of  the  year,  the  fog  and  the  rain,  the  heat 
and  the  cold, — all  should  be  used  to  illustrate  the  sub- 
ject and  to  interest  the  children.  These  are  things  that 
can  not  be  put  in  a  text-book,  but  on  their  proper  use 
depends  to  a  large  extent  the  success  of  every  teacher. 
The  training  of  the  imagination  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  purposes  of  geography,  and  this  faculty  must  be 
called  into  active  play  in  this  study  from  the  very  be- 
ginning. The  knowledge  of  things  seen  must  be 
utilized  to  develop  correct  ideas  of  the  unseen.  Thus, 
a  globe  or  a  ball  is  used  to  develop  the  idea  of  the 
great  round  world  ;  a  little  creek,  or  even  a  gutter,  may 
be  used  to  illustrate  a  great  river ;  a  level  field,  to  give 
an  idea  of  many  miles  of  a  plain  ;  a  small  hill  or  ridge, 
to  illustrate  the  mountain  peak  or  range,  etc.,  etc.  For 
example,  in  teaching  the  opening  lesson  in  the  Eclectic 
Elementary  Geography,  illustrate  the  fact  that  the  earth 
is  a  great  ball  moving,  unsupported,  through  space,  by 
means  of  soap  bubbles  floating  in  the  air.  Blow  the 
bubbles,  and  let  the  class  watch  them  as  they  move. 
Now,  tell  the  children  that  the  earth  does  not  move  first 
this  way  and  then  that,  as  the  bubbles  are  apt  to  do, 
but  that  it  journeys  steadily  on  in  the  same  direction, 
year  after  year,  its  path  making  a  circle  about  the  sun.^ 


*  Do  not  confuse  small  children  by  mincing  scientific  terms.  It 
is  not  necessary  at  this  stage  that  a  child  should  know  the  earth  is 
a  sphc7'oid,  and  not  a  sphere,  or  that  the  earth's  orbit  is  an  ellipse, 
and  not  a  circle,  since  the  ellipse  is  so  nearly  a  circle  that  it 
would  take  a  miscroscope  to  detect  the  difference  on  a  plan  in 
which  the  radius  of  the  circle  is  10  feet. 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  1 49 

To  illustrate  this  last  statement,  pass  a  wire  or  stick 
through  a  ball,  orange,  or  apple,  and  use  a  candle  or 
lamp  to  represent  the  sun.  Walk  about  the  lamp  with- 
out interposing  your  body  between  the  lamp  and  the 
ball  or  between  the  ball  and  the  class.  Be  sure  to  walk 
in  the  right  direction,  keeping  the  lamp  on  your  left 
side.  Explain  that  the  circle  of  the  earth  about  the 
sun,  thus  illustrated,  is  so  large  that  it  takes  a  year  for 
the  earth  to  complete  it.  Have  each  child  in  the  class 
carry  the  ball  about  the  lamp  in  the  same  way. 

When  the  class  seems  to  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  mo- 
tion of  the  earth  about  the  sun,  tell  them  that  while  the 
earth  is  making  this  yearly  journey  it  is  also  spinning 
around  like  a  top.  Illustrate  the  movement  by  whirling 
the  wire  in  the  fingers  w4iile  you  are  walking  about  the 
light,  thus  showing  both  movements  in  operation  at 
once.  Tell  the  class  that  the  earth  is  such  a  big  ball 
that  it  takes  a  whole  day  to  turn  completely  around 
once,   although  it  is  spinning  fast. 

In  explaining  what  the  axis  is,  be  careful  the  children 
do  not  get  the  absurd  idea  that  there  is  a  rod  similar  to 
the  wire  extending  through  the  earth.  Illustrate  by 
spinning  a  coin  on  the  desk  ;  this  shows  the  line  of  the 
axis  very  clearly ;  but  to  give  the  idea  of  a  sphere  spin- 
ning about  an  axis  in  the  same  way,  follow  the  coin 
illustration  with  the  ball  spun  on  the  desk  without  the 
wire  inserted. 

In  illustrating  day  and  night,  it  is  well  to  darken  the 
room  entirely,  except  from  the  light  of  the  lamp  or 
candle  used  to  represent  the  sun,  explaining  that  the 
sun  is  practically  the  only  source  from  which  the  earth 
receives  light.  Then,  by  holding  the  ball  close  to  the 
light,    and   turning   the   former   slowly   on  the  wire,    the 


I  50  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

class  readily  sees  that  one  half  of  the  globe  is  dark  and 
the  other  half  light ;  also,  that  the  movement  of  any 
given  spot  on  the  globe — except  within  the  polar  circles, 
which,  however,  should  not  be  mentioned  at  this  stage — 
is  constantly  and  steadily  proceeding  from  darkness  to 
light  and  from  light  to  darkness.  Bring  out  both  of 
these  points  clearly:  tJie  equal  division  of  darkness  and 
light  on  the  globe,  and  tJie  constant  vwvemerit  from  one 
to  another,  but  develop  only  one  idea  at  a  time.  The 
large  illustration  on  page  five  of  the  book  may  be  used 
also  in  showing  the  daylight  and  the  darkness  on  the 
earth,  and  the  school  globe  may  be  carried  about  the 
lamp  in  the  manner  suggested  for  the  ball  or  the 
orange.  Always  give  two  or  three  different  illustrations 
of  the  same  point  when  it  is  possible. 

Be  careful  always  to  turn  the  ball  or  the  globe  in  the 
same  direction,  from  left  to  right,  otherwise  you  will 
lead  to  confusion  when  you  come  to  illustrate  the  direc- 
tions of  the  compass.  To  explain  the  latter,  fix  on  your 
orange  or  ball  a  little  image  of  a  man  with  his  arms 
extended,  and  his  right  hand  pointing  in  the  direction 
toward  which  the  ball  is  to  revolve.  You  can  readily 
carve  a  rough  little  figure  to  answer  the  purpose,  or  you 
may  use  two  pieces  of  match-sticks,  etc.,  to  represent  a 
man  with  his  arms  extended  ;  in  this  case,  you  should 
blacken  or  otherwise  mark  the  part  representing  the 
face.  Attach  your  figure  to  the  ball  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion. Call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  fact  that  the 
axis  of  the  earth  ahvays  points  in  the  same  direction. 
Illustrate  as  before,  carrying  the  ball  about  the  light, 
with  the  axis  properly  inclined. 

Call  attention  to  the  figure,  and  ask  who  can  answer 
the    following    questions:     "As   I    turn   this   ball   slowly 


DIRECTIONS  OF  THE  COMPASS.  151 

around  [suiting  the  action  to  the  ivoi'd),  where  is  the  Hght 
first  seen,  at  the  right  or  at  the  left  hand  of  the  figure? 
Where  is  it  last  seen?"  Let  the  child  who  is  being 
questioned  come  close  to  the  ball,  as  you  hold  it  in  po- 
sition, and  have  him  stand  so  that  his  right  hand  is  in 
the  direction  of  the  right  hand  of  the  figure ;  or,  in 
other  words,  station  him  facing  the  light  with  the  ball 
directly  between  his  eyes  and  the  light.  This  point 
needs  care  in  illustration,  but  if  the  directions  are  fol- 
lowed,— if  the  pupil  stands  facing  the  light;  if  the  ball 
is  held  between  his  eyes  and  the  light,  with  the  axis 
pointing  to  the  north  star ;  and  if  the  ball  is  then  re- 
volved in  the  proper  direction,  from  left  to  right, — the 
pupils  should  have  no  difficulty  in  answering  the  ques- 
tion. If  there  should  be  any  difficulty,  persist  patiently 
until  all  the  children  see  clearly  that  tJic  ligJit  always 
appears  07i  the  right  anci  disappears  on  the  left  of  the 
figure.  When  this  fact  is  fully  realized  of  one  point  in 
the  orbit,  carry  the  ball  about  the  light  as  before,  and 
show  that  the  fact  is  true  of  ei^eiy  point  of  the  orbit. 
Do  not  use  the  word  orbit,  or  any  scientific  terms, 
but  lead  the  children  to  realize  the  fact  by  ocular 
demonstration,  and  with  as  few  words  as  possible.  Now 
explain  that  the  great  earth  also  turns  always  in  one 
direction,  so  that  the  sun,  Hke  the  lamp,  invariably 
appears  in  one  direction  and  disappears  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Next,  teach  that  the  direction  in  which  the 
sun  appears,  or  **  rises, "  is  called  East,  and  the  direction 
in  which  it  disappears,  or  "sets,"  is  called  West.  Ask: 
"Who  can  point  to  the  direction  in  which  the  sun  first 
appears  in  the  morning  ?  In  which  direction  is  east  ? 
W^ho  can  point  to  the  direction  in  which  the  sun  sets  in 
the  evening?     In  which   direction  is  west?     Stand   with 


1 5 2  ELEMENTAR V  GEOGRAPHY. 

your  arms  extended,  with  the  right  hand  pointing  to  the 
east  and  the  left  hand  pointing  to  the  west.  Now,  chil- 
dren, when  you  stand  in  that  position,  with  your  right 
hand  pointing  to  the  east  and  your  left  hand  pointing  to 
the  west,  the  direction  directly  in  front  of  you  is  called 
N'orth,  and  the  direction  directly  behind  you  is  called 
SoutJi.  Now,  who  can  tell  me  which  direction  is  in 
front  of  you  ?  In  which  direction  is  north  ?  Which 
direction  is  behind  you  ?  In  which  direction  is  south  ? 
Lower  your  hands.  Point  to  the  north  ;  to  the  east ;  to 
the  south  ;  to  the  west.  Face  the  east ;  the  west ;  the 
north;  the  south,"  etc.,  drilling  until  the  four  directions 
are  perfectly  familiar. 

In  explaining  the  compass,  by  all  means  have  the  in- 
strument itself  to  show  the  class.  Carry  it  with  you  on 
your  walks,  and  teach  the  children  to  use  it  by  locating 
the  different  cardinal  points  in  various  localities. 

In  teaching  the  lines  of  the  earth,  a  globe  should  be 
used.  If  the  school  does  not  possess  one,  use  a  ball  or 
an  orange,  and  draw  the  equator  (a  thread  will  serve  for 
a  mark),  the  parallels,  and  the  meridians  upon  it.  Be 
sure  the  children  do  not  get  the  erroneous  idea  that 
these  lines  are  actually  marked  on  the  earth's  surface 
as  they  are  on  the  globe  or  ball. 

By  means  of  a  globe  or  a  ball  properly  marked,  it  is 
very  easy  to  show  a  child  that  a  degree  of  longitude  at 
the  equator  is  much  longer  than  a  degree  of  longitude 
at  the  arctic  circle,  although  they  are  measured  by  the 
same  meridians.  But  by  merely  memorizing  the  state- 
ment of  this  fact  in  a  book,  few  if  any  children  will 
have  the  remotest  idea  of  what  is  meant  or  how  such  a 
thing  could  be. 

Explain  with  the  globe  the  statements  in  the  book  re- 


USE  OF  THE  SCALE.  I  5  3 

garding  north  and  south  latitude,  and  east  and  west  lon- 
gitude. When  the  children  understand  the  terms  fully, 
drill  them  by  having  various  points  found  on  the  globe 
when  the  latitude  and  longitude  are  given. 

The  different  divisions  of  land  and  water  should  be 
illustrated,  as  far  as  your  particular  locality  admits  of  it, 
by  pointing  out  to  the  children  an  actual  cape,  hill, 
bay,  spring,  etc.  Few  localities  present  many  of  the 
divisions,  but,  as  before  suggested,  those  which  are 
accessible  may  often  be  used  to  develop  correct  ideas 
of  those  which  are  not.  A  tray  full  of  molding-sand 
will  enable  you  to  form  all  the  land  divisions,  and  the 
banks  of  any  little  creek  wdll  afford  you  material  for 
illustrating  the  definitions  of  both  land  and  water  divi- 
sions in  miniature.  This  kind  of  work  will  interest  the 
children,  and  they  will  remember  the  definitions  so 
taught  much  more  readily  than  by  merely  studying  the 
statements  in  the  book.  Have  the  children  themselves 
do  as  much  work  of  this  kind  as  may  be  necessary  to 
fix  the  several  definitions  in  their  minds. 

In  teaching  what  maps  are,  have  the  children  make 
maps,  first  of  the  school-room,  then  of  the  school-yard, 
then  of  the  neighborhood  of  the  school,  and  of  different 
familiar  localities,  etc.  Begin  by  showing  them  what  a 
scale  of  distances  is,  and  why  one  is  necessary  to  under- 
stand a  map  rightly.  Thus,  show  them  that  while  you 
can  not  draw  a  map  of  the  school-room  floor  on  the 
blackboard,  making  the  map  of  the  same  size  as  the 
floor,  yet,  by  measuring  the  latter,  and  representing 
each  foot  of  the  floor  by  a  distance  of  one  inch  on  the 
board,  you  can  draw  a  map  having  the  exact  shape  of 
the  floor,  with  all  the  benches,  desks,  the  stove,  etc.,  in 
the  right  positions,  so  that  a  person  who  had  never  seen 


154 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 


^ 

m 


^ 


^ 


^ 


the  room  could  form  a  very  clear  idea  of  its 
size,  shape,  and  arrangement  by  simply  look- 
ing at  the  map  and  consulting  the  scale  on 
which  it  is  drawn. 

To  show  wJiy  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
scale  on  which  a  map  is  made,  draw  two 
maps  of  the  room  floor  on  the  board,  using 
for  the  first  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  foot, 
and  for  the  second  a  scale  of  half  an  inch  to 
the  foot.  Draw  the  scales  on  the  board,  as 
in  the  margin,  placing  each  scale  under  its 
proper  map.  Explain  that  the  two  maps 
represent  the  same  floor ;  but,  if  it  were  not 
for  the  scales,  we  might  think  the  maps  rep- 
resented different  floors,  one  of  which  was 
much  larger  than  the  other.  Again,  draw  a 
map  of  some  imaginary  room,  and,  without 
showing  any  scale,  ask  how  wide  a  room  or 
how  long  a  room  it  represents.  As  it  is  impossible  to 
answer  these  questions,  the  children  will  at  once  per- 
ceive the  necessity  of  having  a  scale  given  in  order  to 
determine  size  or  extent. 

Next,  give  the  children  as  much  practice  as  possible 
in  measuring  actual  distances  and  reducing  them  to 
various  scales.  As  they  are  presumed  to  be  able  to 
work  problems  in  ratio  and  proportion  by  this  time,  the 
mathematical  part  of  the  work  should  present  no  diffi- 
culty. 

When  they  show  themselves  proficient  in  reducing 
simple  lines  to  a  scale,  have  them  employ  the  lines  of 
length  and  breadth  in  figures  representing  certain  simple 
areas,  such  as  the  school-room,  school-yard,  their  own 
farms  or  places,  etc.,   as  before  suggested. 


MAP  TEACHING.  I  55 

The  important  aim  of  this  work  is  to  accustom  chil- 
dren to  view  a  map  in  its  proper  Hght :  namely,  as  a 
mere  representation  in  miniature  of  a  certain  extent  of 
country.  Children  should  have  sufficient  practice  in  this 
kind  of  map-sketching  to  fix  firmly  in  their  minds  the 
correct  idea  of  what  a  map  is  before  the  maps  in  the 
book  are  made  a  subject  of  study. 

Before  taking  up  the  map  of  the  world  on  pages  1 1 
and  12,  you  should  use  the  school  globe,  if  you  have 
one,  in  teaching  the  hemispheres,  the  grand  divisions, 
the  principal  islands,  the  oceans,  and  the  seas.  The  first 
point  to  be  made,  and  a  most  important  one,  is  to  have 
the  children  fully  comprehend  that  the  globe  is  simply 
a  miniature  representation  of  the  world  on  which  we 
live.  Let  it  be  your  constant  effort  in  teaching  geog- 
raphy to  carry  the  minds  of  the  children  from  the  rep- 
resentation to  the  thing  represented,  from  the  map  of  a 
country  to  the  country  itself,  and  from  the  descriptive 
text  to  what  is  described.  Do  not  allow  the  globe  to 
be  studied  simply  as  a  wooden  ball  covered  with  paper, 
on  which  various  colors,  lines,  and  names  are  printed. 
Picture  to  the  child's  imagination,  as  vividly  as  you  can, 
the  great  round  earth,  made  up  of  land  and  water,  with 
the  continents  and  islands  raised  above,  or,  as  it  were, 
standing  out  of  the  oceans.  When  the  children  have 
this  picture  in  their  minds,  tell  them  that  the  globe  is 
made  to  represent  the  earth,  just  as  a  very  small  toy 
house  could  be  made  to  represent  accurately  the  outside 
of  a  great  palace. 

Point  out  on  the  globe,  first,  the  continents,  and  then 
each  of  the  grand  divisions.  Have  the  children  point 
them  out  as  they  are  named,  and  name  them  as  they 
are    pointed    out,    repeatedly,     until    all     are    perfectly 


156  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

familiar  both  as  to  name  and  locality.  Next,  the  oceans 
should  be  pointed  out  on  the  globe,  and  their  locations 
with  reference  to  the  continents  should  be  learned  as 
well  as  their  names.  Drill  as  on  the  continents  and 
grand  divisions.  The  principal  islands,  seas,  etc.,  may 
be  taught  in  the  same  manner.  Teach  that  the  map  on 
pages  II  and  12  is  simply  another  way  of  representing 
the  surface  of  the  round  world,  and  that  all  other  maps 
in  the  book  are  representations  of  only  portions  of  the 
earth's  surface  dr-awn  on  a  lai^ger  scale  than  this  first 
map.  Illustrate  by  contrasting  North  America,  as  rep- 
resented on  pages  11  and  18.  Follow  this  by  contrast- 
ing the  United  States  on  pages  18  and  22,  23  ;  then 
contrast  your  own  state  as  shown  on  pages  22,  23,  with 
the  sectional  map  of  the  state  given  in  the  book.  In 
this  way  the  child  is  led  to  look  at  a  sectional  map  in 
the  right  light  as  representing  a  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface.  He  will  not  be  so  apt  then  to  study  it  as  a 
mere  isolated  conglomeration  of  colors,  lines,  and  names. 
It  is  suggested  that  each  map  be  traced  back  in  this 
manner  through  the  decreasing  scales  until  the  portion 
under  study  is  located  on  the  map  of  the  world  or  the 
globe,  and  that  the  children  be  taught  to  bear  this 
location  in  mind  while  studying  the  larger  map. 

Relief  globes  and  maps,  and  moldings  in  sand,  are 
used  by  some  instructors  in  teaching  the  structure  of 
continents,  but  there  is,  we  think,  a  very  grave  objec- 
tion to  their  use,  as  they  must  necessarily  give  most 
erroneous  ideas  of  elevations  of  land  as  compared  with 
continental  distances.  We  think  it  is  a  fact  conceded 
by  all  teachers  that  it  is  better  to  develop  no  ideas  at 
all  than  to  develop  wrong  ones.  First  impressions  are 
notably  strong.      Why,   then,  should  children  be  taught 


RELIEF  MAPS.  I  57 

the  monstrous  absurdities  portrayed  on  relief  globes  and 
maps,  and  by  moldings  of  continents,  only  to  be  com- 
pelled to  fight  against  these  first  impressions  for  the 
remainder  of  their  lives?  Few  teachers  seem  to  realize 
how  great  the  distortion  generally  is  on  a  relief  map  or 
globe.  For  example,  the  highest  mountain  in  the  world, 
Mount  Everest  is  about  29,000  feet  high;  and  when  you 
reduce  our  world — about  7,900  miles  in  diameter — to 
the  size  of  a  school  globe  2  feet  in  diameter,  Mount 
Everest  would  be  represented  properly  by  a  speck  not 
-^  of  an  inch  high.  Again,  let  us  consider  the  proper 
proportions  of  a  section  extending  across  the  United 
States  on  the  parallel  of  Mount  Whitney,  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  United  States.  This  mountain  is  nearly 
15,000  feet  high,  and  on  its  parallel  the  continent  is 
about  2, 500  miles  wide.  If,  then,  we  represent  the 
mountain  by  an  elevation  one  inch  in  height,  our  section 
must  be  made  1,056  inches,  or  88  feet  in  width.  Now 
consider  the  distortion  of  the  ordinary  molding  in  relief 
of  the  United  States — say,  with  the  mountains  elevated 
at  least  an  inch  above  sea-level,  and  with  a  breadth  of 
continent  not  more  than  40  inches.  This  would  either 
represent  Mount  Whitney  as  62^  miles  high,  or  the 
continent  as  only  1 14  miles  broad.  Does  not  such 
teaching  inevitably  do  more  harm  than  good?  It  seems 
to  us  a  much  better  plan  not  to  bring  these  widely 
differing  extensions  into  comparison  until  the  child  has 
arrived  at  an  age  when  he  can  realize  to  a  certain  extent 
the  vast  difference  between  them. 

We  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  relief  should  not  be 
taught  at  all  in  primary  classes.  On  the  contrary,  it 
can  be  very  successfully  taught.  Show  a  child  a  hill ; 
tell    him    its    height,    and    then    contrast    this    with    the 


158  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

height  of  a  mountain.  He  will  readily  follow  you,  and 
you  have  taken  one  step  in  teaching  the  relief  of  the 
globe.  Again,  show  him  a  sloping  field  crossed  by  an 
abrupt  ridge,  and  you  can  easily  lead  him  to  imagine 
the  long  gradual  slope  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  so  on  with  other  continental 
features,  until  the  child  can  see  in  his  mind  the  conti- 
nent as  a  whole,  with  its  mountain  ranges,  river  valleys, 
and  coast  plains,  probably  in  a  much  truer  light  than 
that  presented  by  distorted  piles  of  sand,  etc.  We 
believe  in  teaching  relief,  but  we  do  not  believe  in 
teaching  wrong  ideas,  or  in  attempting  to  teach  propor- 
tions impossible  of  conception. 

The  use  of  molding-sand  should  be  confined  to  the 
formation  of  the  geographical  forms  usually  defined.  It 
is  easy  to  teach  the  children  to  make  an  island,  a  prom- 
ontory, a  cape,  a  plain,  a  plateau,  a  hill  or  mountain, 
a  mountain  chain,  an  isthmus,  etc.,  but  this  method  of 
illustration  is  not  well  adapted  to  teaching  the  forms  of 
continents  or  their  structure,  neither  is  it  sufficiently 
exact  in  ordinary  use  for  teaching  those  facts  usually 
acquired  from  maps.  Molding-sand  can  not  take  the 
place  of  globes,  maps,  or  books  on  geography. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  children,  .in  study- 
ing maps,  do  not  get  erroneous  ideas  of  directions. 
North  is  almost  invariably  toward  the  top  of  a  map  ;  but 
do  not  allow  the  children  to  gain  an  idea,  because  of 
this  uniformity,  that  north  means  up  and  that  south 
means  doivn.  There  is  danger  of  this,  especially  when 
wall  maps  are  constantly  used.  A  case  is  on  record 
where  a  school  visitor  asked  the  children  to  point  to  the 
north,  and  the  entire  school  pointed  directly  over  their 
heads.      With  correct  and  careful  teaching,  such  a  blun- 


ZONES.  159 

der  would  have  been  impossible.  North  means  in  the 
direction  toward  the  north  pole,  and  south  means  in 
the  direction  toward  the  south  pole ;  up  means  in  the 
direction  toward  the  zenith,  or  overhead,  and  down 
means  in  the  direction  toward  the  center  of  the  earth, 
or  underfoot.  These  latter  definitions  are  not  arbitrary, 
of  course,  for  up  also  means  from  a  lower  to  a  higher 
place,  and  down  means  the  reverse.  Thus,  down  from 
the  top  of  a  hill  may  be  in  every  direction  of  the  com- 
pass ;  and,  from  the  base  of  the  hill,  you  may  be  able 
to  go  up  in  every  direction  of  the  compass  ;  but,  from 
either  top  or  bottom  of  the  hill,  there  is  but  one  north 
direction  and  but  one  south  direction.  We  dwell  upon 
this  point  because  it  is  important  that  the  distinction 
between  the  various  terms  should  be  impressed  upon 
the  minds  of  the  children  before  they  commence  to 
study  maps. 

In  teaching  the  zones  in  the  elementary  class,  it  is 
undesirable  to  go  into  any  explanation  of  Jiow  the 
boundaries  of  the  different  zones  are  determined,  as  the 
subject  is  considered  too  difficult  for  the  comprehension 
of  young  children.  This  explanation  is  treated  fully 
under  the  corresponding  head  in  the  Complete  Geogra- 
phy ;  but  in  the  Elementary,  only  so  much  is  said  about 
the  zones  as  is  necessary  for  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  succeeding  topics  of  climate,  plants,  and  animals ; 
the  races  of  men,  their  manner  of  living,  and  their  oc- 
cupations. 

In  teaching  climate,  ask:  "Who  can  tell  from  the 
definitions  in  the  book  in  which  zone  we  live?"  If  this 
question  can  not  be  answered  at  once,  draw  out  the 
fact  by  a  series  of  questions  until  the  children  realize 
that  they  must  be  living  in  the  temperate  zone.      Then 


l60  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

point  out  the  different  zones  on  the  globe,  or,  if  the 
school  does  not  possess  one,  on  the  map  of  the  world, 
and  show  them  as  nearly  as  possible  the  spot  where 
they  live. 

In  teaching  plants,  illustrate  the  subject  as  far  as  you 
can  by  specimens  of  the  various  plants,  bits  of  woods 
of  different  kinds,  etc.,  etc.  Have- the  class  bring  you 
as  many  specimens  as  possible  of  the  vegetable  products 
of  their  zone,  and  incite  them  to  secure  a  wide  variety. 
If  any  important  products  of  the  temperate  zone  are 
not  to  be  obtained  in  your  neighborhood,  make  a  list 
of  them,  and  teach  the  children  any  interesting  facts 
you  may  know  about  them. 

While  the  illustrations  on  page  13,  and  similar  illus- 
trations throughout  the  book,  are  exceedingly  useful, 
yet  the  lessons  they  teach  should  be  supplemented 
where  it  is  possible  by  showing  the  children  the  living 
animals.  A  zoological  garden  or  a  good  menagerie  is 
a  most  useful  and  intensely  interesting  means  to  this 
end ;  but  the  children  should  be  accompanied  to  such 
places  by  a  person  who  is  competent  to  tell  them  the 
names  of  the  animals,  where  they  live,  their  habits, 
their  uses,  etc. 

The  manner  of  living  and  the  occupations  of  men 
depend  largely  upon  the  zone  in  which  they  live ;  thus, 
agriculture  and  manufacturing  could  not  be  carried  on 
in  the  frigid  zone.  By  judicious  questioning,  and  by 
explanation  where  necessary,  show  how  different  coun- 
tries, or  parts  of  countries,  are  peculiarly  adapted  by 
nature  to  certain  pursuits.  Also,  demonstrate  the  im- 
portance of  commerce,  showing  that  by  this  means  it  is 
possible  for  almost  any  place  to  be  supplied  w^ith  the 
products  and  manufactures  of  the  entire  world. 


WHAT  TO  TEACH.  l6l 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  maps  of  the  Elementary 
Geography  are  exceedingly  simple.  Except  on  the 
sectional  maps  of  the  United  States,  only  those  rivers, 
mountains,  cities,  etc.,  are  shown  which,  it  is  consid- 
ered, should  be  taught  to  every  child,  and  in  such  a 
way  that  he  will  be  able  to  locate  them  promptly  as 
soon  as  they  are  mentioned.  The  sectional  maps  of  the 
United  States  are  fuller  in  detail,  as  children  should  be 
more  fully  instructed  in  regard  to  their  own  state  than 
any  other.  The  less  important  cities  of  the  section  not 
in  the  child's  own  state  may  be  omitted  in  map  work  at 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 

The  text  of  the  Elementary  Geography  is  absolutely 
free  from  statistics,  from  unimportant  details,  and  from 
repetitions.  Therefore,  all  that  is  given  should  be 
learned,  and  the  teacher  can  not  go  wrong  in  demanding 
that  the  entire  text  shall  be  learned  thoroughly. 

In  reviewing,  it  Avill  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  topics  as  presented  in  the  book. 
Ask  only  general  questions  on  the  geography  of  the 
world  as  a  whole.  Let  the  questioning  be  a  little  fuller 
on  the  grand  divisions.  That  on  the  different  political 
divisions  should  be  graduated  in  accordance  with  the 
importance  of  the  several  nations  as  related  to  our 
country  and  their  own  importance  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  The  geography  of  the  United  States  should 
receive  careful  attention,  and  your  own  state  especially 
should  have  full  treatment,  the  questions  embracing  all 
that  is  given  in  the  book,  both  on  the  map  and  in  the 
text. 


E.  M.— 14. 


XIII. 

THE  ECLECTIC  COMPLETE  GEOGRAPHY. 

THIS  book  has  been  so  arranged,  by  the  use  of  two 
sizes  of  type,  that,  if  the  time  is  Hmited,  a  short 
course,  complete  in  itself,  can  be  adopted.  The  full 
course  includes  the  entire  text,  embracing  both  the 
large  and  the  small  type.  Much  of  the  explanatory 
matter,  and  the  less  important  particulars,  are  put  in 
small  type,  and  may  be  omitted  without  interfering  with 
the  arrangement  or  connection  of  the  large  type.  -The 
latter  used  alone  constitutes  the  short  course.  The 
questions  on  the  text  are  confined  to  the  short  course. 

The  matter  in  small  type,  however,  should  in  no  case 
be  disregarded  entirely.  Even  where  the  short  course 
is  adopted,  and  this  small  type  is  not  recited,  the 
teacher  should  suggest  that  the  pupils  read  it  carefully. 
It  contains  much  interesting  and  valuable  information, 
and  in  many  cases  will  assist  materially  in  understanding 
the  accompanying  text  in  large  type. 

The  preliminary  treatment  of  mathematical,  physical, 
and  political  geography  should  be  taught  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  suggested  for  these  subjects  in  the  Ele- 
mentary Geography.  In  the  Complete,  the  treatment 
is,  of  course,  much  fuller  than  in  the  Elementary,  and 
is  somewhat  more  difficult  to  understand.  Every  state- 
ment that  admits  of  it  should  be  fully  illustrated.  Have 
the  children  themselves  perform  all  the  illustrative  ex- 
periments, such  as  showing  the  two  movements  of  the 

(1G2) 


EXPLANA  TIONS.  1 63 

earth  in  combination ;  how  the  directions  east,  west, 
north,  and  south  are  determined;  the  changes  of  season, 
how  the  zones  are  formed,  etc.,  etc.  In  reviewing  the 
preceding  day's  lesson,  select  some  pupil  to  make  the 
necessary  explanations  to  the  class,  just  as  you  made 
them  on  the  previous  day.  Nothing  will  impress  the 
facts  on  a  child's  memory  so  indelibly  as  this  class  of 
exercises. 

The  statements  in  a  text-book  of  this  nature  are  nec- 
essarily very  concise.  Do  not  limit  your  instruction  to 
these  concise  statements,  however,  where  a  development 
of  the  ideas  they  set  forth  seems  desirable.  For  exam- 
ple, on  page  five,  under  mathematical  geography,  article 
2  {ci),  explain  the  statement,  ''This  would  not  be  the 
case  if  the  surface  were  flat,"  by  telling  explicitly  what 
would  be  the  case,  and  luJiy  the  masts  would  disappear 
before  the  hull.  If  you  can  draw  these  explanations 
from  the  pupils  themselves  by  judicious  questioning,  so 
much  the  better ;  but,  at  all  events,  the  full  explana- 
tions should  be  made  in  one  form  or  another.  The 
pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  stumble  along  in  the 
dark  as  to  the  meaning  of  what  they  study,  simply 
memorizing  words. 

Show  by  experiment  in  the  sunshine,  or  with  a  light 
of  some  kind,  that  a  sphere  is  the  only  body  whose 
shadow  is  always  round,  using  a  half  sphere,  a  coin, 
and  various  objects  besides  a  sphere. 

In  teaching  directions  of  the  compass,  pursue  the 
same  plan  as  in  this  elementary  class.  The  two  classes 
may  be  given  the  lesson  together. 

In  teaching  the  circles  of  the  earth,  show  by  experi- 
ment, using  an  orange  or  wooden  ball  properly  cut,  that 
the  circle  which  divides   a   sphere  into  two  equal   parts 


1 64  COMPLETE  GEOGRAPHY. 

must  pass  through  the  center  oi  the  sphere,  that  all  such 
circles  are  of  the  same  size,  and  that  any  circle  which 
does  not  pass  through  the  center  of  the  earth  is  smaller 
than  one  that  does. 

Explain  with  the  globe  why  meridians  are  only  semi- 
circumferences,  while  the  parallels  extend  entirely 
around  the  globe. 

Explain  why  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  is  taken  as 
the  prime  meridian  rather  than  that  of  London.  The 
national  observatory  is  at  Greenwich. 

Exercises  in  finding  points  on  the  globe  when  the  lat- 
itude and  longitude  are  given,  should  be  continued  long 
enough  to  assure  the  teacher  that  the  entire  class  under- 
stands the  meaning  and  use  of  parallels  and  meridians. 

The  motions  of  the  earth  should  be  illustrated  as  in 
the  Elementary  Geography  by  means  of  a  ball  transfixed 
by  a  wire,  the  sun  being  represented  by  a  light  of  some 
kind.  / 

Show  what  is  meant  by  the  sun  being  **over"  any 
meridian,  illustrating  with  a  light  and  a  revolving  globe. 

The  simple  diagram  on  page  i66  may  be  readily 
drawn  upon  the  board,  and  will  be  found  of  great  assist- 
ance if  used  in  connection  with  the  revolving  ball  and 
lamp,  in  explaining  how  the  limits  of  the  zones  are  de- 
termined, the  changes  of  seasons,  the  longest  and 
the  shortest  days  of  the  year,  etc. 

Explain,  in  the  first  place,  what  is  meant  by  the  in- 
clination of  the  earth's  axis  23^°  from  a  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  using  the  diagram  on  page 
7,  second  column,  and  the  sketch  on  the  opposite  page 
of  this  book,  which  should  be  drawn  on  the  board. 
Refer  to  article  15,  page  6,  in  explaining  what  deter- 
mines the  length  of  a  degree. 


LENGTH  OF  DA  YS. 


165 


23  H' 


To  Illustrate  and  explain  the  longest  and  shortest 
day  of  the  year,  carry  the  globe  around  the  light,  hav- 
ing the  axis  properly  inclined  and 
kept  constantly  pointing  in  the 
same  direction.  Ask  the  children 
to  note  carefully  at  what  point  of 
the  circuit  the  north  end  of  the 
axis  leans  most  directly  away  from 
the  lamp,  and  at  what  point  it 
leans  directly  toward  the  lamp. 
When  they  have  recognized  these 
two  points,  tell  them  that  these  two  positions  are  rep- 
resented by  figures  No.  i  and  No.  3  in  the  diagram  on 
the  board  (see  page  166).  Darken  the  room,  except  from 
the  light  representing  the  sun,  and  show  the  class  that  at 
point  No.  I  there  is  more  darkness  as  compared  with  the 
light  north  of  the  equator  than  at  any  other  point  in  the 
entire  circuit,  while  at  No.  3  there  is  more  light  as  com- 
pared with  the  darkness  north  of  the  equator  than  at 
any  other  point  in  the  circuit.  This  means,  in  other 
words,  that  when  the  earth  is  at  point  No.  i  it  is  the 
shortest  day  and  the  longest  night  of  the  year  north 
of  the  equator,  and  when  the  earth  is  at  point  No.  3 
it  is  the  longest  day  and  the  shortest  night  of  the  year 
north  of  the  equator.  Tell  the  class  that  the  earth  is  in 
position  No.  i  on  the  21st  of  December,  which  is 
accordingly  the  shortest  day  of  the  year  north  of  the 
equator;  and  that  it  is  in  position  No.  3  on  the  21st  of 
June,  which  is  therefore  the  longest  day  of  the  year 
north  of  the  equator.  South  of  the  equator  the  condi- 
tions and  facts  are  simply  reversed. 

Now  tell  the  class  that  the  rays  of  the  sun,  when  the 
earth  is  in  these  two  positions,  fix  the  limits  of  certain 


1 66 


COMPLETE  GEOGRAPHY. 


No.  2. 

Spring 

March  22nd. 


No.  3. 

Summer 

Juue  21st. 


Nol. 
Winter 
Dec.  21  St. 


^  No.4. 
Autumn 
Sept.  22  nd. 

belts  or  zones,  known  as  the  north  and  south  frigid 
zones,  the  torrid  zone,  and  the  north  and  south  temper- 
ate  zones. 

Hold  the  globe  in  position  No.  i,  and  indicate  with  a 
pencil  the  points  a,  b,  and  c.  The  first  two  points 
mark  the  northern  and  southern  limits  of  the  sunlight 
on  this  day ;  c  marks  the  point  on  which  the  vertical 
rays  of  the  sun  fall  on  this  day.  With  the  pencil  at 
each  of  these  points  in  turn,  have  a  pupil  revolve  the 
globe,  and  the  pencil  will  describe  the  arctic  circle  at  a, 
the  antarctic  circle  at  b,  and  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  at 
c.  Then,  in  the  same  Avay,  Avith  the  globe  at  position 
No.    3,    the   pencil   describes   the   arctic  circle  at  a,   the 


ESTABLISHMENT  OE  ZONES.  1 6/ 

antarctic  circle  at  /;,  and  the  tropic  of  cancer  at  c. 
Question  the  class,  and  draw  out  of  the  pupils  the  exact 
statements  of  how  the  limits  of  the  torrid  and  frigid 
zones  are  determined,  thus:  "What  determines  the 
limits  of  the  frigid  zones?"  Answer:  "The  frigid  zones 
are  bounded  by  the  parallels  which  mark  the  extreme 
limits  of  the  earth's  surface  touched  by  the  sun's  rays 
on  the  longest  and  shortest  days  of  the  year."  "What 
determines  the  limits  of  the  torrid  zone?"  "The  torrid 
zone  is  bounded  by  those  parallels  which  mark  the 
extreme  limits  of  the  earth's  surface  touched  by  the 
vertical  rays  of  the  sun  on  the  longest  and  shortest  days 
of  the  year."  Explain  that  the  surfaces  between  the 
frigid  zones  and  the  torrid  zone  are  called  the  temperate 
zones.  Thus  we  have  the  five  distinct  zones  in  order: 
the  north  frigid  zone,  the  north  temperate  zone,  the 
torrid  zone,  the  south  temperate  zone,  and  the  south 
frigid  zone. 

Hold  the  globe  in  position  No.  i,  and  have  the  class 
note  that  on  Dec.  2ist,  which  is  called  our  winter  sol- 
stice, the  entire  north  frigid  zone  is  in  darkness ;  that 
is,  at  no  point  in  the  north  frigid  zone  does  the  sun 
appear  or  "rise"  that  day.  Again,  at  this  time  in  the 
south  frigid  zone,  the  sun  is  visible  from  every  point ; 
that  is,  it  does  not  "set"  on  that  day. 

These  facts,  and  the  relative  lengths  of  day  and  night 
in  different  quarters  of  the  globe  on  this  day,  are  illus- 
trated by  the  light  and  shaded  portions  of  the  diagram 
on  the  board ;  but  they  should  also  be  illustrated  by 
actual  experiment  with  the  light  and  the  globe. 

Explain  that  as  the  earth  journeys  on  in  its  orbit  from 
Dec.  2 1  St,  that  the  point  a  gradually  advances  toward 
the    north    pole,    and    the    point  b  recedes   towards   the 


1 68  COMPLETE  GEOGRAPHY. 

south  pole  until  at  a  certain  point  in  the  orbit  these  two 
points  and  the  poles  of  the  earth  coincide ;  that  is,  at 
this  point,  represented  by  figure  No.  2  in  the  diagram, 
the  sun's  rays  touch  the  north  and  south  poles  at  the 
same  time.  It  is  apparent  from  the  figure  that  at  this 
point  exactly  one  half  of  each  zone  is  light  and  the 
other  half  dark ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  days  and  nights 
are  equal  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Illustrate  with  the 
globe  and  lamp  as  before,  and  tell  the  class  that  the 
earth  reaches  this  point  in  its  orbit  which  is  known  as 
the  vernal   equinox,    on  the  22d  of   March. 

The  globe  should  be  carried  slowly  from  position  No. 
I  to  position  No.  2,  and  the  class  required  to  notice  the 
gradual  change  of  light  and  darkness  in  the  two  frigid 
zones.  Demonstrate  with  the  light  and  globe  the 
changes  that  occur  in  each  quarter  from  2  to  3,  3  to  4, 
and  4  to  I,  asking  such  questions  as  will  lead  the  class 
to  find  out  the  facts  for  themselves. 

Have  the  class  notice  that  at  every  point  in  the  orbit 
one  half  of  the  equator  is  in  the  light,  and  the  other 
half  in  darkness ;  that  is,  at  the  equator  the  day  and 
the  night  are  always  equal,  and  each  is  one  half  of  24 
hours,   or   12  hours,   long. 

Have  the  class  notice  also  that  the  sun  first  appears 
at  the  north  pole  on  March  2 2d,  and  does  not  again 
disappear  until  September  22d;  that  is,  the  day  is  there 
six  months  long.  After  disappearing  on  September 
22d,  the  sun  does  not  appear  again  at  the  north  pole 
until  March  22d ;  that  is,  the  night  is  there  six  months 
long.  This  is  also  true  at  reverse  periods  for  the  south 
pole ;  that  is,  the  day  and  night  are  equal  at  the  poles, 
and  each  is  six  months  long. 

The  explanations,  illustrated   by  the  globe  and   light, 


WAVES  AND  TIDES.  1 69 

the  diagram  on  the  board,  and  the  diagrams  in  the 
book,  ought  to  render  the  causes  of  all  the  phenomena 
of  day  and  night,  and  the  seasons,  apparent  to  any  in- 
telligent child  who  is  old  enough  to  study  the  Complete 
Geography. 

Teach  the  use  of  globes,  maps,  and  scales  as  sug- 
gested for  the  Elementary  Geography. 

In  teaching  physical  geography,  even  those  defini- 
tions that  are  repeated  from  the  Elementary  should  be 
illustrated  as  far  as  possible,  but  especial  attention 
should  be  paid  to  such  definitions  as  may  be  new  to  the 
children.  For  example,  illustrate  the  statements  regard- 
ing the  Land  and  Water  Hemispheres,  page  nine,  article 
13.  Place  the  school  globe  in  such  a  position  that  the 
diameter  through  the  land  and  water  centers,  or 
** poles, "  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  floor,  turning  first 
one  pole  on  top  and  then  the  other.  This  will  show  at 
a  glance  the  preponderance  of  water  surface. 

If  possible,  secure  a  piece  of  unpolished  coral  to 
show  of  what  material  the  coral  islands  are  built.  The 
more  illustrations  you  have  of  this  nature,  the  more  in- 
teresting the  subject  will  be. 

To  show  the  motion  of  waves,  page  12,  article  36, 
use  a  rather  long  and  heavy  piece  of  rope.  By  shaking 
one  end  of  this  up  and  down,  the  children  can  follow  a 
wave  as  it  travels  along  from  the  hand  to  the  other  end 
of  the  rope.  By  this  experiment  the  child  learns  that 
the  wave  travels,  while  the  material  or  substance  of 
which  it  is  composed  has  little  if  any  horizontal  motion ; 
the  wave  travels,  the  rope  does  not ;  in  the  same  way 
the  wave  of  water  travels  forward,  while  the  water  itself, 
unless  disturbed  by  other  influences,  simply  rises  and 
falls  with  each  succeeding  wave. 

E.  M.— 15. 


I/O  COMPLETE  GEOGRAPHY. 

As  stated  in  article  37,  the  tide  moves  like  a  wave. 
Do  not  let  the  children  get  a  wrong  impression,  from 
the  sweeping  in  and  out  of  tide  waters  in  river  mouths, 
harbors,  etc.,  that  the  waters  of  the  open  ocean  have 
this  same  regular  horizontal  flow  back  and  forth.  There 
the  tides  are  not  appreciable  at  all;  that  is,  there  is 
almost  no  horizontal  motion  of  the  water  itself,  and  the 
slow,  gradual  rise  and  fall  of  the  great  body  a  few  feet 
twice  in  twenty-four  hours  can  not  be  perceived.  It  is 
only  when  the  tide  approaches  the  shore  and  meets  with 
resistance  from  the  shoaling  bottom  that  the  waters 
attain  appreciable  height  and  a  horizontal  motion. 
Speaking  of  this  point,  and  of  the  variation  in  the 
height  of  the  tides  at  different  places  on  the  same  coast, 
J.  E.  Hilgard,  ex-superintendent  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey,  says :  ' '  When  the  movement  reaches 
shallow  water,  in  approaching  the  shores,  the  horizontal 
motion  [of  the  wave^  not  of  the  water\  is  partly  trans- 
lated into  vertical  motion  upon  the  sloping  bottom,  and 
it  is  thus  that  the  tides  attain  sensible  vertical  height. 
Now,  where  a  bay  or  indentation  of  the  coast  presents 
itself,  opening  favorably  to  the  tide-wave  thus  devel- 
oped, and  decreases  in  width  from  its  entrance  toward 
its  head,  the  tide  rises  higher  from  the  mouth  upward. 
This  is  due  to  the  concentration  of  the  wave  by  the 
approach  of  the  shores,  and  to  the  gradual  shoaling  of 
the  bottom." 

You  should  explain  hozv  the  vapor,  mentioned  on 
page  12,  article  41,  is  formed.  Illustrate  by  the  vapor 
rising  from  a  wet  shoe  when  held  near  the  fire. 

To  show  the  class  that  the  same  number  of  sun's  rays 
are  distributed  over  a  greater  space  nearer  the  poles 
than    at    the    equator,     page     13,     article    58,    draw    the 


HE^i  T  AND  COLD. 


171 


accompanying  diagram  on  the  board.  The  columns  x 
and  y  contain  an  equal  number  of  sun's  rays,  and  it  is 
very  evident  that  the  distance  cd  on  the  earth's  surface 
near  the  pole  is  much  greater  than  the  distance  ab  near 
the  equator ;  that  is,  the  rays  that  fall  near  the  poles  are 
more  widely  distributed  than  those  which  fall  near  the 
equator.  Another  way  of 
stating  the  case  would  be 
that  more  rays  fall  in  the 
same  space  at  the  equator 
than  at  the  poles,  and 
consequently  the  space  re- 
ceiving the  most  rays  is 
the  hottest.  To  show  this, 
lay  off  the  space  ce  at  the 
pole    equal    to    the   space 

ab  at  the  equator.  It  is  evident  that  more  rays  fall  in 
the  space  ab  than  in  the  space  ce,  and  consequently  ab 
is  hotter  than  ce. 

The  subject  of  minerals,  treated  on  page  15,  article 
97,  and  more  fully  on  page  17,  article  16,  may  be  made 
extremely  interesting.  Specimens  should  be  obtained 
if  possible,  showing  the  various  minerals  in  their  native 
state.  Many  interesting  books  and  articles  have  been 
written  in  reference  to  the  formation  of  coal,  salt,  and 
petroleum.  The  entire  subject  opens  a  wide  field  for 
instructive  composition  lessons. 

The  subject  of  the  "Surveys  of  the  Public  Land," 
treated  on  page  26,  is  an  important  one,  and  should  be 
thoroughly  learned,  especially  in  those  states  where  the 
land  has  been  surveyed  in  the  manner  described.  In  all 
such  states,  children  should  know  where  the  base-line 
and  principal  meridian   for  their  state  are  situated,   and 


172  COMPLETE  GEOGRAPHY. 

should  be  drilled  until  they  can  locate  any  tract  of  160 
acres  in  the  state. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  text  of  the  Complete 
Geography  comparative  statements  are  usually  made  in 
regard  to  areas  in  addition  to  the  actual  figures.  It  is 
more  important  that  these  comparative  statements 
should  be  learned  than  that  the  statistics  should  be 
mem.orized ;  for  if  relative  sizes  are  clearly  defined  in 
the  mind,  approximate  areas  at  once  suggest  themselves 
when  the  area  of  the  basis  of  comparison  is  known. 
Thus,  a  child  in  Indiana  is  taught  the  exact  area  of  his 
own  state  in  figures  thoroughly.  Knowing  this,  he  learns 
that  the  United  States  would  contain  one  hundred  states 
the  size  of  Indiana  (page  21,  article  3);  and  this  fact, 
which  at  once  gives  him  approximately  the  area  of  the 
United  States,  is  easily  retained  in  the  memory.  The 
same  method  should  be  used  in  teaching  the  comparative 
areas  of  different  states  in  our  own  country,  and  the 
areas  of  the  principal  countries  of  the  world  as  com- 
pared with  the  United  States.  That  the  eye  may  assist 
the  mind  effectively,  the  different  sectional  maps  of  the 
United  States  have  been  drawn  on  a  nearly  uniform 
scale,  so  that  states  in  different  sections  can  be  thus 
brought  into  direct  comparison  as  to  size. 

In  the  map  work,  due  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  prominent  places  in  corresponding  latitudes  which 
are  given  on  the  side  margins.  There  is  an  astonishing 
amount  of  ignorance  on  this  subject,  even  among  per- 
sons who  consider  themselves  well  educated;  and  there 
are  few  persons,  perhaps,  who  will  not  be  surprised  at 
their  own  erroneous  ideas,  as  developed  by  some  of  the 
facts  brought  to  light  by  this    feature  of  the  study. 

Contour  lines,   both  in  the  sea  and  on  land,  should  re- 


ADDENDA.  1 73 

celve  attention,  especially  those  which  appertain  to  your 
own  state.  The  teacher  should  explain  carefully  to  the 
class  that  those  on  the  land  represent  lines  of  equal  alti- 
tudes above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  that  those  in  the 
water  represent  lines  of  equal  depths  below  the  surface 
of  the  sea. 

Map  drawing  is  important  as  a  great  aid  in  fixing  the 
shapes  of  countries  in  the  memory.  It  should  be  com- 
menced with  the  study  of  the  maps,  and  every  pupil 
should  draw  all  the  maps  that  are  given  in  the  Com- 
plete Geography.  The  teacher  may  use  his  discretion 
as  to  the  reproduction  of  minute  details,  but  outlines, 
topographical  features,  and  principal  cites  should  be  re- 
quired in  all  cases. 

Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  table  of  definitions 
of  foreign  geographical  terms  on  page  102.  As  maps 
of  foreign  countries  are  studied,  this  table  should  be 
consulted,  and  the  more  important  translations  should 
be  memorized. 

The  general  review  questions  on  page  ICXD  cover  the 
ground  thoroughly,  and  every  child  that  is  supposed  to 
have  "finished"  geography  should  be  able  to  answer 
every  question  on  that  page.  An  examination  on  these 
questions  without  special  preparation  will  test  the 
thoroughness  of  the  work  accomplished. 


GRAMMAR 


XIV. 

HARVEY'S  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. —Harvey's  Elementary 
Grammar  and  Composition  is  a  text-book  in  which 
the  topics  relating  to  technical  grammar  and  analysis  are 
arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  studied 
by  beginners.  It  contains  carefully  prepared  illustra- 
tions of  the  method  of  instruction  to  be  employed  in 
teaching  these  topics.  In  the  preparation  of  this  manual 
for  teachers,  it  has  not  been  thought  necessary  or  ad- 
visable to  do  much  more  than  (i)  to  designate  the 
parts  of  the  course  of  study  to  which  special  attention 
must  be  paid  in  order  to  secure  the  most  desirable 
results ;  (2)  to  suggest  the  introduction  of  supplementary 
exercises  where  they  can  probably  be  used  with  advan- 
tage \  (3)  to  point  out  the  sections  that  need  only  to 
be  read  and  made  subjects  of  conversation ;  (4)  to  em- 
phasize by  repeated  statement  the  advice,  ''never  to 
define  a  term  or  enunciate  a  principle  without  first  pre- 
paring the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  grasp  and  comprehend 
the  meaning  and  use  of  the  term  defined  or  the  prin- 
ciple  enunciated." 

The  "sentence-making"  exercises  may  be  supple- 
mented indefinitely  and  used  in  all  parts  of  the  course. 
At  first  all  the  words  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of 
a  sentence  should  be  given  ;  then,  a  part  of  them,  the 
pupils  supplying   those   necessary   for  a  complete  state- 

(177) 


178  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR. 

ment.  When  they  have  learned  to  do  this  readily,  they 
should  be  taught  that  groups  of  words  are  sometimes 
used  like  single  words.  Single  words  and  groups  be- 
ginning with  prepositions  may  then  be  written  on  the 
blackboard,  and  the  pupils  required  to  arrange  them 
into  sentences  without  changing  the  order  of  the  words 
in  the  groups.  The  use  of  the  clause  can  be  taught  in 
a  similar  manner.  In  an  elementary  course,  the  terms 
phrase  and  clatise  ought  never  be  used,  but  each  combi- 
nation of  words  should  be  called  a  groups  and  be  re- 
garded as  a  single  thing  not  to  be  separated  into  its 
parts.  Pupils  taught  in  this  manner  soon  become  apt 
critics  of  their  own  language  and  that  of  their  com- 
panions. 

The  value  of  picture  lessons  in  ''composition"  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  The  manner  in  which  they 
should  first  be  given  is  illustrated  on  pages  22  and  23. 
As  soon  as  pupils  can  dispense  with  the  assistance  of  a 
teacher  in  the  use  of  pictures,  they  may  be  taught  to 
describe  what  is  to  be  seen  through  windows  or  doors, 
to  write  stories  suggested  by  pictures,  and  to  describe 
scenes  with  which  they  may  be  familiar.  Excellent 
results  can  be  secured  by  work  of  this  kind  in  high 
schools,  as  well  as  in  schools  of  lower  grade.  To  an 
observant  teacher  or  pupil,  the  pictures  that  adorn  the 
walls  of  so  many  of  our  school-rooms  will  suggest  inter- 
esting themes  for  compositions.  Any  intelligent,  pains- 
taking teacher,  by  using  the  method  recommended,  can 
make  this  a  most  interesting  and  attractive  part  of  the 
course  of  study.  In  schools  in  which  many  different 
branches  are  taught  and  the  number  of  classes  is  large, 
the  recitation  in  technical  grammar  should  be  omitted 
occasionally   and    the    time    devoted    to    instruction    and 


GENERAL  REMARKS.  IJg 

practice  in  composition.      Much  will  be  gained  and  little 
lost  by  this   **  departure"  from  the    "old  way." 

Having  been  trained  in  sentence-making,  in  picture 
lessons,  and  in  writing  descriptions  of  real  or  imaginary 
events,  pupils  may  be  required  to  read  a  description  of 
a  single  object  several  times,  then  to  lay  the  book  or 
paper  containing  it  aside,  and  reproduce  its  leading  facts 
from  memory.  The  description  should  never  be  re- 
ferred to  while  writing,  either  for  facts  or  forms  of  ex- 
pression. Work  similar  to  this  should  be  done  until 
the  reproduction  of  a  description  becomes  an  easy  task. 
Pupils  may  then  be  required  to  describe  familiar  single 
objects,  at  first  using  "plans"  prepared  by  the  teacher 
or  given  in  the  text-book.  The  teacher  should  talk 
w^ith  the  pupils  about  objects  to  be  described,  criticize 
"plans"  submitted  to  him  for  examination,  and  assist 
in  obtaining  desired  information,  but  he  should  insist  on 
each  pupil's  using  his  own  language  in  his  descriptions. 
The  description  of  single  objects,  especially  of  manu- 
factured articles,  buildings,  etc.,  is  excellent  work  for 
pupils  in  the  lower  classes  of  high  schools. 

The  definitions  of  technical  terms  ought  to  be  re- 
peated in  parsing  exercises  until  they  can  be  given 
without  hesitation  ;  they  may  then  be  dispensed  with  or 
given  only  in  occasional  reviews.  Grammatical  rules  are 
usually  statements  of  facts — repetition  helps  to  fix  them 
in  the  memory.  Too  frequent  repetition,  however,  is 
wearisome  and  unnecessary. 

Refer  to  the  rules  for  the  use  of  capital  letters  and 
marks  of  punctuation,  as  they  are  needed  in  sentence- 
making  and  composition.  Pupils  will  thus  learn  the 
practical  application  of  rules  at  the  time  they  are  learn- 
ing their  formal  statement  in  technical  language. 


l8o  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR. 


PART  I. — Elementary  Course. 


Objects.  Definitions. — Talk  with  the  pupils  about  the 
senses,  objects,  words,  language,  spoken  language, 
written  language,  and  grammar,  but  do  not  require 
them  to  commit  to  memory  the  definitions  on  pages 
7  and  8. 

TJie  Sentence. — Teach  the  subject  in  the  manner  indi- 
cated in  the  text.  Require  pupils  to  learn  and  recite 
the  directions  to  be  observed  in  writing  sentences. 

Sentence -making. — In  developing  the  idea  of  each  kind 
of  sentence,  use  many  illustrations  in  addition  to  those 
in  the  text.  Observe  the  direction  given  on  page  lo. 
Use  this  lesson  quite  frequently  as  a  review. 

Quotation  Marks. — As  an  additional  exercise,  require 
pupils  to  write  sentences  in  which  one  states  what 
another  says  without  using  his  exact  language.  The 
pupil  will  thus  learn  how  to  write  both  direct  and  in- 
direct quotations. 

Parts  of  Speech. — The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  show 
that  words  can  be  divided  into  classes.  Use  the  same 
word  with  different  meanings,  and  in  different  parts  of 
sentences,  to  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  the  terms 
meaning  and  use.  **I  saw  a  drove  of  cattle."  **He 
drove  the  cattle  over  the  bridge."  ''Gold  is  a  metal.'' 
*'Mary  has  a  gold  pencil,"  and  similar  sentences  may  be 
employed  for  this  purpose. 

Tlie  Noun. — Do  not  neglect  to  teach  that  a  noun  is 
the  name  of  an  object  and  not  the  object  itself.  Show, 
also,  that  by  placing  tJie,  this,  that  and  other  definitive 
words  before  a  common  noun,  a  particular  meaning  is 
given  to  it  without  making  it  a  proper  noun.  Do  not 
omit  any   of   the   exercises.      Be    thorough    in    teaching 


EL  EM  EN  TAR  Y  CO  URSE.  1 8  I 

how  to  form  the  plurals  of  nouns.      Illustrate  each  rule 
in  assigning  it  as  a  part  of  a  lesson. 

Abbrcviatiojis  and  Contractions. — Require  pupils  to  pay 
particular  attention  to  the  use  of  capital  letters  and  the 
period  in  writing  abbreviations,  and  to  the  writing  of 
words  in  which  the  apostrophe  takes  the  place  of 
omitted  letters.  Examine  critically  the  written  exercises 
of  pupils,  and  see  that  the  work  required  is  done  cor- 
rectly. 

Elemcfits  of  a  Sentence. — Develop  the  idea  of  each 
part  of  a  sentence  before  permitting  pupils  to  learn  its 
definition.  Prepare  oral  exercises  to  supplement  those 
given  on  page  20.  Require  pupils  to  analyze  sentences 
orally  before   using  diagrams. 

The  Verb. — Pupils  should  be  required  to  fill  all  the 
blanks  with  appropriate  words.  Develop  the  idea  of 
the  objective  element  before  attempting  to  teach  the 
classification  of  the  verb.  Read  the  remarks  carefully  in 
assigning  lessons,  but  do  not  require  pupils  to  commit 
them  to  memory.  Observe  the  directions  given  in  the 
text  of  this  and  succeeding  lessons. 

Incorrect  Language. — The  ''cautions"  in  the  Ele- 
mentary Grammar  need  not  be  committed  to  memory. 
Refer  to  them  in  correcting  the  exercises  in  the  text- 
book as  well  as  the  language  of  the  pupils  in  conversa- 
tion and  sentence-making. 

Sentence-making. — Be  thorough  in  teaching  the  appli- 
cation of  the  two  rules  given  on  page  29.  See  that  the 
blanks  in  the  exercises  are  filled  with  appropriate  words, 
and  that  the  pupils  make  no  mistakes  in  the  use  of  the 
comma. 

The  Adjective. — Require  pupils  to  make  separate  lists 
of  quality-words,   pointing-out-words,   and  number-words 


1 82  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR. 

before  permitting  them  to  learn  the  definitions.  Refer 
to  the  dictionary  for  definitions  of  the  words  descriptive 
and  definitive.  Do  not  introduce  the  subject  of  com- 
parison in  a  formal  way,  but  use  adjectives  in  the  com- 
parative or  superlative  degree  without  referring  to  their 
forms.  Tell  the  pupils  that  the  articles  the,  a,  and  an 
are  usually  classed  among  the  definitive  adjectives. 

Sentence -making.  — The  teacher  should  supplement  the 
exercises  in  the  lesson  on  page  34  by  others  prepared 
by  himself  Pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  slight 
the  work  required  in  this  part  of  the  course.  Examine 
all  written  work  with  care,  and  see  that  pupils  observe 
the  directions  given  in  preceding   lessons. 

The  Participle. — Do  not  hurry  in  developing  the  idea 
of  this  part  of  speech.  Show  by  a  large  number  of 
illustrations  in  what  particulars  the  participle  resembles 
the  verb  and  the  adjective.  In  teaching  the  definitions, 
call  attention  again  and  again  to  the  fact  that  the  present 
participle  denotes  continuance,  and  always  ends  in  hig, 
and  that  the  perfect  participle  always  denotes  completion. 
Be  sure  that  the  pupils  learn  how  the  compound  parti- 
ciple is  formed. 

The  Pronoim. — Teach  the  definition  in  the  manner  in- 
dicated on  page  42.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  pupil 
should  learn  the  definitions  of  the  kinds  of  pronouns  at 
this  time. 

The  Adjective  Element. — Pupils  generally  learn  readily 
how  to  distinguish  this  element  from  the  others.  Be 
careful  in  teaching  the  application  of  the  terms  posses- 
sive and  appositive.  Teach  that  possessives  and  apposi- 
tives  are  usually  nouns  or  pronouns,  although  they  are 
used  like  adjectives  as  modifiers  of  nouns.  The  rules 
for    the    formation    of    the    possessive    case    should     be 


ELEMENTARY  COURSE.  1 83 

learned,  but  no  attempt  made  to  develop  the  idea  of 
case.  Use  sentences  written  by  pupils  as  supplementary 
exercises  in  analysis  and  parsing. 

Kinds  of  Pronouns  :  i . .  Personal  Pronouits.  — Be  careful 
to  teach  the  subject  of  person  before  attempting  to  teach 
the  definition  of  the  term  personal  pronoun.  The  exer- 
cises on  page  49  are  specially  important,  and  none  of 
them  should  be  omitted. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns. — Do  not  fail  to  make  the  pupil 
understand  that  a  possessive  denotes  a  possessor  only, 
while  a  possessive  pronoun  denotes  both  the  possessor  and 
the  tiling  possessed. 

3.  Relative  Pronouns. — Develop  the  idea  of  a  relative 
clause  by  the  use  of  oral  illustrations.  Supplement  the 
exercises  on  pages  54  and  55  by  sentences  prepared  by 
teacher  or  pupil. 

4.  Interrogative  Pronojms. — As  additional  exercises  in 
analysis  and  parsing,  use  sentences  written  by  pupils. 
These  sentences  should  contain  both  interrogative  pro- 
nouns and  interrogative  adjectives. 

The  Adverb. — Do  not  omit  any  of  the  exercises  on 
page  58.  In  developing  the  idea  of  the  adverb,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  adverbial  element,  use  oral  illustrations. 
Require  pupils  to  substitute  adverbs  for  the  adverbial 
clauses,  when  practicable,   in  the   exercises  on  page  60. 

TJie  PiTposition. — Require  pupils  to  point  out  the 
groups  of  words  used  as  modifiers  in  the  exercises  on 
page  63  ;  then  teach  them  that  each  group  begins  with 
a  word  that  shows  the  relation  between  the  words  it 
connects.  Call  this  connective  a  Preposition,  and  the 
modifying  group  of  words  a  Phrase.  The  definitions  of 
the  two  terms  may  then  be  learned  and  the  exercises 
analyzed. 


1 84  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR. 

The  Infinitive. — Pupils  should  be  made  to  understand 
the  difference  between  expirssing  action  and  affiinning  it 
before  being  permitted  to  commit  the  definition  of  the 
infinitive  to  memory.  Use  oral  exercises  to  supplement 
those  given  on  page  66. 

The  Conju?iction. — The  definition  should  be  taught  in 
the  manner  indicated  in  the  oral  lesson  on  page  6j. 
Show  by  illustrative  examples  in  what  respects  conjunc- 
tions differ  from  prepositions  and  relative  pronouns. 

Compound  Elements. — Require  pupils  to  commit  to 
memory  the  directions  for  writing  compound  elements. 
Use  sentences  written  by  pupils  as  exercises  in  analysis. 

Simple  and  Compound  Sentences. — Require  pupils  to 
write  sentences,  each  containing  a  part  common  to  the 
others,  and  then  to  combine  them  into  single  sentences ; 
also,  to  write  many  compound  sentences,  and,  when 
possible,   to  separate  them  into  simple  ones. 

Complex  Sentences. — Call  attention  to  the  remarks  on 
page  74,  and  teach  that  a  sentence  in  which  a  clause  is 
used  as  subject  or  predicate,  is  complex,  one  of  its  ele- 
ments containing  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  Use  many 
sentences,  in  addition  to  those  on  pages  ']6  and  'j'j,  as 
exercises  in  reducing  and  enlarging  sentences. 

Reviezv. — Review  Part  I  thoroughly  before  beginning 
Part  II.  In  this  review,  sentence-making  and  composi- 
tion should  not  be  neglected.  They  are  more  important 
exercises  than  analysis  and  parsing. 


PART  II. — Advanced  Course. 

Gender,  Person,  and  Number. — Use  oral  illustrations  in 
teaching  the  definitions,  and  use  the  sentences  required 


ADVANCED  COURSE.  1 85 

to  be  written  as  exercises  in  analysis.  As  soon  as  the 
idea  of  a  property  is  developed  and  the  definition 
learned,  require  the  term  to  be  used  in  parsing  exer- 
cises. Do  not  require  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  the 
plurals  of  nouns  to  be  committed  to  memory  and  recited 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged  in  the  text,  but 
let  pupils  refer  to  them  until  they  can  write  correctly 
the  singular  and  plural  forms  of  nouns  in  common  use. 

Case. — Use  the  illustrations  on  page  83  in  showing 
that  the  term  case  is  used  to  denote  the  relation  of  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun  to  other  words,  and  oral  illustrations 
in  showing  the  use  of  the  same  term  to  denote  the  form 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
nouns  have  only  two  case-forms, — the  nominative  and 
the  possessive, — the  nominative  case-form  being  used  in 
the  nominative,  objective,  and  nominative-absolute  cases. 
Review  the  lesson  on  pages  43  and  44  thoroughly,  and 
require  pupils  to  write  a  large  number  of  sentences  con- 
taining nouns  in  the  possessive  case  singular  and  plural. 

Properties  of  the  Pronoun:  i.  Personal  Pronouns. — Refer 
to  the  remarks  on  page  89  occasionally  in  parsing  exer- 
cises, and  require  pupils  to  state  the  substance  of  each 
remark  in  their  own  language. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns. — Teach  that  in  parsing  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun  by  the  first  method,  no  attention  what- 
ever should  be  paid  to  the  name  of  the  possessor,  the 
part  to  be  parsed  being  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed. 
This  part  may  be  in  any  case  except  the  possessive. 
Teach,  also,  that  in  using  the  second  method,  one  of 
the  two  words  into  which  the  pronoun  may  be  sepa- 
rated,  may  be  owning,   having,    or  possession. 

3.  Relative  Pronouns. — Teach  orally  how  to  distinguish 
a  relative  from  a  personal  pronoun.      Be  patient,  and  do 

E.  M.— 16. 


1 86  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR. 

not  hurry  in  this  part  of  the  course.  Each  paragraph 
following  the  description  of  "double  relatives"  on  page 
93  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a  separate  lesson. 

4.  Interrogative  Pronouns. — Require  the  remark  on 
page  95  to  be  studied  carefully,  and  be  sure  that  the 
pupils  understand  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  term  sub- 
sequent. In  review  lessons,  show  how  interrogative  pro- 
nouns are  used  in  indirect  questions. 

False  Syntax. — Do  not  require  the  **  Cautions"  to  be 
learned  in  teaching  pupils  how  to  correct  examples  in 
false  syntax.      Refer    to    them  as  occasion  may  require. 

The  Adjective. — Review  definitions  already  learned. 
Teach  that  more,  most,  less,  and  least,  in  such  expres- 
sions as  more  careful,  most  cai'eful,  less  careful,  and  least 
carefiil,  are  adverbs.  The  lists  of  pronominals  need  not 
be  committed  to  memory,  and  no  technical  terms 
should  be  employed  in  parsing,  except  those  given  in 
the   ''Order  of  Parsing." 

Properties  of  the  Verb. — Review  as  directed  on  page 
103. 

1.  Voice. — Require  the  verbs  in  given  sentences  to  be 
changed  from  the  active  to  the  passive  voice,  or  from 
the  passive  to  the  active  voice.  At  first,  let  the  pupils 
point  out  the  parts  of    each  verb  in  the   passive  voice. 

2.  Mode  and  Tense. — Having  taught  the  definition  of 
the  indicative  mode,  teach  the  subject  of  Tense.  Do 
not  assign  long  lessons.  To  teach  a  single  mode 
thoroughly  may  require  all  the  time  usually  set  apart 
for  several  recitations. 

3.  Number  and  Person. — Refer  to  Rules  XIII,  XIV, 
and  XV  as  occasion  may  require. 

4.  Conjugation. — The  paradigms  need  not  be  com- 
mitted to  memory;  but  pupils  should  prepare  synopses 


ADVANCED  COURSE,  I  8/ 

and    write    sentences    containing    verbs   in   any   required 
form,   voice,   mode,    tense,   number,    and  person. 

The  Adverb. — Review  the  lessons  on  pages  57,  58,  59, 
and  60.  Do  not  require  pupils,  in  parsing  exercises,  to 
tell  to  what  class  an  adverb  belongs. 

TJie  Preposition. — Require  the  statements  made  on 
page  127  to  be  studied  carefully.  Let  the  pupils  state 
the  substance  of  each  paragraph  in  his  own  language. 
In  written  exercises  in  analysis  and  in  diagrams,  use  the 
symbol  [  ]  to  indicate  the  omission  of  a  preposition. 

TJie  Conjunction. — Review  the  lesson  on  page  6^ ,  and 
teach  the  definition  on  page  129;  then  review  pages  6*^^ 
69,  70,  71,  72,   73,  74,  75,   'jG,  and  y'j. 

Ellipsis. — Let  the  pupils  supply  the  words  omitted  in 
their  reading  lessons  and  in  sentences  used  as  drill  exer- 
cises. Write  on  the  blackboard  a  series  of  elliptical 
sentences  to  show  that  any  part  of  a  sentence  may  be 
omitted  except  the  part  that  will  suggest  the  rest. 

Abridgment. — Require  pupils  to  change  many  complex 
sentences  to  simple  ones  by  abridging  their  subordinate 
clauses ;  also,  to  write  sentences  containing  abridged 
propositions.  Let  the  pupils  state  in  their  own  lan- 
guage the  substance  of  the  three  parts  of  the  remark 
on  page  134.  Refer  to  this  remark  in  parsing  the  nouns 
or  the  pronouns  in  abridged  propositions.  Teach  that 
the  noun  or  the  pronoun  on  which  an  infinitive  depends 
is  called  the  subject  of  that  infinitive. 


XV. 

HARVEY'S  REVISED  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

GENERAL  REMARKS.— In  Harvey's  Elementary 
Grammar  and  Composition,  the  arrangement  of 
the  topics  relating  to  technical  grammar  and  analysis 
corresponds  to  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  studied 
by  beginners.  In  his  Practical  Grammar,  the  topics  are 
arranged  in  a  different  manner  —  those  relating  to  the 
same  subject  or  division  of  a  subject  being  grouped  to- 
gether. 

In  many  schools,  the  Practical  Grammar  is  used  in 
teaching  classes  of  beginners.  To  secure  the  best  re- 
sults in  such  schools,  the  topics  properly  belonging  to 
an  elementary  course  of  instruction  should  be  studied  in 
an  order  similar  to  that  indicated  in  this  manual.  Hav- 
ing mastered  this  course,  pupils  can  pursue,  easily  and 
profitably,  the  study  of  those  more  difficult  topics  usu- 
ally regarded  as  belonging  to  an  advanced  course. 

In  mastering  this  elementary  course,  pupils  will  learn 
(i)  to  identify  words  as  belonging  to  (^le'tain  classes, 
called  parts  of  speech ;  (2)  to  analyze  sentences,  or  to 
separate  them  into  their  principal  and  subordinate  ele- 
ments ;  (3)  to  define  the  technical  terms  employed,  and 
to  use  them  intelligently ;  (4)  to  express  thoughts  in 
properly  constructed  sentences  ;  (5)  the  correct  use  of 
capital  letters,  marks  of  punctuation,  etc. 

In  teaching  classes  of  beginners,  omit  the  definitions 
on  page  7  and  all  of   Part  I.      When   necessary  in  sen- 

(188) 


GENERAL  REMARKS.  1 89 

tence-making  and  composition,  refer  to  the  rules  and 
remarks  on  the  use  of  capitals,  small  capitals,  etc.,  in 
Part  I,  but  do  not  require  pupils  to  commit  them  to 
memory. 

In  an  advanced  course,  reference  should  be  made  to 
Part  I  for  definitions  of  terms  used  in  orthography,  and 
it  may  be  advisable  to  have  occasional  drill  exercises  in 
the  analysis  of  syllables  and  words ;  but  systematic  in- 
struction in  orthography  need  not  be  made  a  part  of 
the  course. 

The  "Cautions"  should  be  studied  carefully,  and 
pupils  required  to  correct  the  examples  in  false  syntax. 
P'requent  reference  should  be  made  to  these  cautions  in 
correcting  the  spoken  and  written  language  of  pupils. 
It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  they  be  learned  and 
recited  memoriter. 

In  assigning  lessons,  the  teacher  should  designate  the 
"Remarks"  to  be  studied,  and  refer  to  them  frequently 
in  conducting  recitations.  Pupils  may  occasionally  be 
required  to  state  in  their  own  language  the  substance  of 
remarks  assigned  as  a  part  of  a  lesson. 

The  "Rules"  may  be  learned  when  they  are  needed 
in  parsing  exercises.  In  some  instances,  the  whole  or  a 
part  of  a  remark  may  be  used  instead  of  a  rule — as  in 
parsing  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  changed  from  the  nomina- 
tive to  the  objective  case  in  abridging  a  proposition,  or 
a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  nominative  case  after  a  par- 
ticipial noun  in  an  abridged  proposition.  (See  Remark 
3,  page  198,  and  the  second  part  of  Remark  i,  page 
182.) 

In  all  written  exercises,  require  pupils  to  observe  the 
rules  for  the  use  of  the  marks  of  punctuation.  In  drill 
exercises  in  punctuation,  use  the  methods  recommended 


190  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

in  the  "Note  to  Teachers"  on  page  252.  The  exer- 
cises in  the  text-books  should  be  studied  until  the  appli- 
cation of  each  rule  and  remark  is  understood. 

The  subjects  under  the  heading  of  **  Figures  of  Lan- 
guage "  may  be  referred  to  for  the  definitions  of  such 
technical  terms  as  pupils  may  have  occasion  to  use  in 
literary  exercises.  Refer  to  these  terms  and  their  defini- 
tions when  appropriate  illustrations  occur  in  reading  les- 
sons. 

At  least  one  third  of  the  time  usually  set  apart  for 
recitation  should  be  spent  in  sentence-making  and  com- 
position. It  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  many  schools  no 
attention  whatever  is  paid  to  these  important  exercises. 

Pupils  must  know  how  to  analyze  a  given  sentence 
before  they  can  intelligently  represent  its  analysis  in  a 
diagram.  The  proper  use  of  diagrams,  therefore,  is  to 
supplement  oral  or  written  analysis. 

As  a  rule,  pupils  should  not  begin  the  study  of  tech- 
nical grammar  before  they  are  ten  years  old. 


Elementary  Course. 

{The  references  are  to  Harvey's  Revised  Practical  Grammar.') 

The  Noun:  definition. — Page  7.  In  teaching  the  defi- 
nition, use  the  first  paragraph  of  the  oral  lesson  on  page 
29. 

Analysis:  definitions. — Lesson  I,  page  136.  Do  not 
require  or  permit  pupils  to  commit  the  definitions  to 
memory  before  they  have  learned  the  uses  of  the  terms 
to  be  defined.  Do  not  omit  any  of  the  exercises  in 
sentence-making  on  page  137.  Rule  I,  page  245,  to  be 
observed  in  writing. 


ELEMENTAR  V  CO  URSE.  1 9 1 

Analysis. — Lesson  II,   page   137. 

The  Noun. — Use  the  second  and  third  paragraphs  of 
the  oral  lesson  on  page  29  in  teaching  the  Common  Noun 
and  the  Proper  Noun.  Require  pupils  to  point  out  the 
nouns  in  their  reading  lessons,  and  to  tell  whether  they 
are  common  or  proper. 

Model  for  Parsing.  —  "John  is  an  orphan."  John  is 
a  noun:  it  is  a  name;  proper:  it  is  the  name  of  a  par- 
ticular person.'  OrpJian  is  a  noun;  (why?)  eommon :  it 
can  be  applied  to  any  one  of  a  class  or  kind. 

Analysis. — Lesson  III,  page  138,  and  the  classification 
of  sentences  with  respect  to  use  on  page   144. 

The  Adjective. — Use  the  first  four  paragraphs  of  the 
oral  lesson  on  page  42  in  teaching  the  definition.  Do 
not  omit  any  of  the  exercises  on  page  26. 

The  Adjective. — Use  the  last  three  paragraphs  of  the 
oral  lesson  on  page  43  in  teaching  the  definitions  of  the 
two  kinds  of  adjectives.  Require  the  pupils  to  classify 
the  adjectives  as  descriptive  or  definitive  in  the  exercises 
on  page  26. 

Model  for  Parsing.  —  ''Ripe  apples  are  in  that  box." 
Ripe  is  an  adjective:  it  is  a  word  used  to  describe  a 
noun  ;  descriptive :  it  describes  a  noun  by  denoting  some 
quality.  That  is  an  adjective;  (why?)  defijiitive :  it  de- 
fines without  expressing  any  quality. 

77ie  Pronoun. — Use  the  first  paragraph  of  the  oral 
lesson  on  page  56  in  teaching  the  definition.  Require 
pupils  to  point  out  the  pronouns  in  the  exercises  on 
page   26  and  in  their  reading  lessons. 

Model  for  Parsing. — "Who  came  with  you?"  Who 
is  a  pronoun  ;  it  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun.  You 
is  a  pronoun;  (why?). 

Analysis. — Lesson  IV,  page  138.     Analyze  all  the  ex- 


192  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR. 

ercises,  and  require  pupils  to  point  out  and  classify  all 
the  nouns  and  adjectives.      Use  these  diagrams: 

I.  Apples  are  ripe.  2.  Birds  ply. 

Apples  I  are  :  ripe.  Birds  |  fly. 

i  i~ 

The  Verb. — Teach  the  definition  in  the  manner  indi- 
cated on  page  26,  and  in  the  first  paragraph  of  the  oral 
lesson  on  page  73.  Require  pupils  to  write  sentences 
containing  verbs  denoting  action. 

Analysis. — Lesson  V,  page  139.      Use  this  diagram: 

Childre7i  love  play. 
Children  |  love  |  play. 


The  Verb. — Use  the  last  three  paragraphs  of  the  oral 
lesson  on  page  73  in  teaching  the  definitions  of  the 
three  kinds  of  verbs.  Use  oral  exercises  in  drills  on 
the  application  of  the  terms  transitive,  intransitive,  and 
copulative. 

Models  for  Parsing.  —  i.  ''Pupils  recite  lessons."  Re- 
cite is  a  verb;  it  denotes  action;  transitive:  it  requires  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning.  2.  **The  horse  runs." 
Runs  is  a  verb;  (why?)  intransitive:  it  does  not  require 
the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning,  3. 
"Liberty  is  sweet."  Is  is  a  vci% ;  (why?)  copulative:  it 
is  used  to  connect  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  and  to 
make  an  assertion. 

Analysis. — Lesson  VI,  page  140.  Do  not  omit  any 
of  the  exercises  in  sentence-making.  Use  sentences 
written  by  pupils  as  additional  exercises  in  analysis. 
Require  pupils  to  point    out    the  nouns,    pronouns,   and 


ELEMENTARY  COURSE. 


193 


adjectives  in  all    the  exercises.      Be  patient,  mid  do   7iot 
hiury.      Use  these  diagrams: 


I.    Cold  winter  conies. 
winter      I  comes. 


2.  The  man  reads  his  paper. 
man       |  reads  |  paper. 


Cold 


The 


his 


The  Participle. — Teach  the  definition  in  the  manner 
indicated  on  page  27.  Call  attention  to  the  difference 
between  a  participle  and  a  verb. 

Teach  the  classification  and  definitions  as  given  on 
pages  78  and  79.  Require  pupils  to  point  out  and 
classify  the  participles  in  the  exercises  on  pages  81  and 
82.      Use  the  model  for  parsing  on  page  81. 

Analysis. — Lesson  VII,  page  141.  Teach  orally  the 
use  and  the  definition  of  the  term  subordinate  element. 
Use  these  diagrams : 


I.  The  wind  blows  violently. 
wind       I  blows 


2.  Very  loud  reports  were  heard. 
reports        |  were  heard. 


The  I     I  violently. 


loud 


Very 


The  Adverb. — Use  the  oral  lesson  on  page  115  in 
teaching  the  definition. 

Model  for  Parsing.  —  '*  He  acted  wisely."  Wisely  is 
an  adverb;  it  is  used  to  modify  a  verb. 

The  Phrase. — Teach  the  use  of  a  prepositional  phrase, 
caUing  it  a  ''group  of  words."  Let  pupils  point  out 
the  phrases  in  the  exercises  following  the  definition  of 
the  preposition  on  page  28.      Use  this  diagram : 

The  weary  soldiers  rested  at  noon  by  the  roadside. 
soldiers        I  rested 


E.  M.-17. 


weary 

at  noon 

The 

by  roadside. 

the 

194  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

The  Preposition. — Use  the  oral  lesson  on  page  121  in 
teaching  the  definition.  Define  the  term  pJirase  (see 
page   162). 

Model  for  Parsing.  —  "The  horse  ran  over  the  hill." 
Over  is  a  pi'eposition ;  it  shows  the  relation  between  its 
object  and  some  other  word :  it  shows  the  relation  be- 
tween /////  and  ran. 

Analysis. — Teach  the  definition  of  the  term  simple 
sentence  given  on  page  145.  Use  sentences  written  by 
pupils  as  drill  exercises  in  analysis.  Many  of  these  sen- 
tences should  contain  phrases  used  as  adjective  or  ad- 
verbial elements. 

TJie  Pronoun. — Teach  the  classification  of  the  pro- 
noun, using  the  oral  lesson  on  page  56.  Illustrate  the 
use  of  the  terms  fij'st  perso7i,  second  person,  and  tJiii'd 
person  before  teaching  the  classification. 

Models  for  Parsing.  —  i.  "I  have  seen  him."  /  is  a 
pronoun;  it  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun:  personal; 
it  shows  by  its  form  that  it  is  of  the  first  person.  2. 
"That  book  is  Jiei^s.''  Hers  is  3.  pjvnoun ;  (why?):  pos- 
sessive; it  represents  both  the  possessor  and  the  thing 
possessed.  3.  "I  am  he  whom  ye  seek."  Whom  is  a 
pronoun;  (why?):  relative;  it  represents  a  preceding  word 
to  which  it  joins  a  limiting  clause.  4.  "Who  goes 
there?"  Who  is  2.  pronoun  ;  (why?):  iiiterrogative ;  it  is 
used  in  asking  a  question. 

Analysis. — Teach  the  definition  of  the  term  Complex 
Sentence  given  on  page  145.  Require  pupils  to  point 
out  the  principal  and  subordinate  clauses  in  the  exer- 
cises. Use  the  exercises  on  page  146,  and  the  first  six 
exercises  on  page  166  as  illustrations.  Do  not  analyze 
the  subordinate  clause  in  a  complex  sentence,  but  teach 
its  use  as  an  element.      Require    pupils   to  write    many 


ELEMENTARY  COURSE.  1 95 

sentences  containing  subordinate  clauses.      Analyze  these 
sentences,  using  these  diagrams  : 

I.  He  who  studies  will  2.  Flowers  will  bloom  when  spring 

learn.  cojnes. 

He  I  will  learn.  Flowers  |  will  bloom 


who  studies  |  |  when  spring  comes 


T/ie  Conjunction. — Use  the  oral  lesson  on  page  127, 
and  the  exercises  on  page  29.  Teach  the  uses  and  the 
definitions  of  the  two  kinds  of  conjunctions. 

Model  for  Parsing.  —  '*EH  and  Silas  will  improve  if 
they  study."  Arid  is  a  conjunction;  it  is  a  word  used  to 
connect  words :  it  connects  the  words  Eli  and  Silas.  If 
is  a  conjunction ;  it  is  a  word  used  to  connect  clauses:  it 
connects  the  clauses  Eli  and  Silas  will  improve  and  they 
study. 

Analysis. — Teach  the  definition  of  the  term  simple 
element  given  on  page  168.  Use  any  appropriate  exer- 
cises in  preceding  lessons  as   illustrations. 

Analysis. — Teach  the  definition  of  the  term  compound 
element,    using  exercises   on    page    174.       Use   these   dia- 


grams 


I.  John  and  Seth  read  well.  2.  They  run  swiftly  and  gracefully. 

John  and  Seth  |  read  They  |  run 


well.  I       swiftly  «;?</ gracefully 


Analysis. — Teach  the  definition  of  the  term  Compound 
Sentence  given  on  page  146,  using  oral  exercises.  In 
analysis,    use  this  diagram : 

Talent  is  something,  but  tact  is  every  thitig. 
Talent  [  is  :  something,  but  tact  j  is  :  thing. 


I  I  I  every 


ig6  PRACTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

The  Interjection. — In  analyzing  a  sentence  containing 
an  interjection  or  any  attendant  element,  use  this  dia- 
gram : 

Hark!  sojue  one  comes. 

Hark! 

one  I  comes. 


some 


Review. — Review  thoroughly  the  instruction  given  in 
this  course,  requiring  pupils  to  prepare  most  of  the 
exercises  used  in  analysis  and  parsing. 


Advanced  Course. 

The  Noun. — Review  the  definitions  already  learned, 
and  teach  the  use  and  definition  of  the  term  pmiicipial 
noun.  Show  by  illustrative  examples  that  the  words 
the^  tJdSy  that,  these,  those,  etc.,  give  a  particular  mean- 
ing to  common  nouns  when  placed  before  them,  but  do 
not  convert  them  into  proper  nouns ;  as  in  the  sentence, 
*'  The  horse  is  in  tJiat  stable."  Do  not  require  pupils  to 
commit  any  of  the  remarks  to  memory,  but  refer  to 
them  when  necessary  in  assigning  lessons  or  conducting 
recitations. 

Properties  of  Nouns:  i.  Gender. — Refer  to  the  remark 
following  the  definition,  and  to  other  remarks  as  occa- 
sion may  require. 

2.  Person. — Note  particularly  Remark  2. 

3.  Number. — Write  on  the  blackboard  lists  of  nouns 
in  the  singular  number,  and  require  pupils  to  write  their 
plural  forms  on  slate  or  paper.  The  rules  for  the  for- 
riiation  of  the  plural  of  nouns  can  be  learned  much  more 


ADVANCED  COURSE.  1 97 

easily  by  writing  well-selected  illustrations  than  in  any 
other  way.  Require  pupils  to  write  the  singular  and 
plural  forms  of  nouns  found  in  reading  lessons ;  also, 
the  plurals  of  the  names  of   common  objects. 

4.  Case. — Show  that  the  term  case  denotes  (i)  the  re- 
lation of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  to  other  words,  and  (2) 
the  form  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun.  Require  pupils  to 
write  the  possessive  singular  and  possessive  plural  of 
nouns,  referring  to  the  remarks  when  necessary.  Do 
not  neglect  to  teach  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  terms 
direct  object  and  indirect  object  (see  page  38,  Section  32, 
Remark).  Teach,  also,  that  in  the  cases  referred  to 
in  Remark  3,  page  154,  the  object  denoting  rank, 
office,  occupation,  character,  or  species  may  be  called  an 
Attributive   Object.      Use  these  diagrams : 

I.  I  gave  him  an  apple.  2.  They  have  chosen  Mr.  Ames  speaker. 

^^^"^  ^-^Mr.  Ames 

I  I  gave     apple.  They  |  have  chosen  |  <^  speaker. 


an 


In  showing  that  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  possessive 
case  or  in  apposition  are  adjective  elements,  use  this 
diagram : 


'iD' 


Mr.   O/droyd,  my  lawyer,  is  Henry  s  uttcle. 
Mr,  Oldroyd  |  is  :  uncle. 


lawyer,  Henry's 


my 


TJie  Adjective. — Review  definitions  already  learned. 
Teach  the  definitions  of  the  three  kinds  of  pronominal 
adjectives,  but  do  not  require  pupils  to  commit  the  lists 
to    memory.       Refer    to    the    words    in    these    lists    in 


198  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR. 

parsing  and  composition  exercises,  and  in  correcting 
false  syntax.  The  adverbs  more,  most,  less,  and  least, 
when  used  in  the  comparison  of  adjectives,  may  be  re- 
garded as  adverbial  elements.  Do  not  neglect  to  teach 
the  correct  use  of  the  pronominals. 

The  Proiiomi :  i .  Personal  Pronouns.  — Show  that  the 
term  case  denotes  the  form  of  a  personal  pronoun  as 
well  as  its  relation  to  other  words,  and  that  it  may  be 
used  to  denote  the  form  only ; — as  its,  when  not  used  in 
connection  with  other  words  in  a  sentence,  is  a  personal 
pronoun  in  the  possessive  case ;  and  Jiini,  when  used  in 
a  similar  manner,  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  objective 
case.  Teach  that  it,  when  used  to  introduce  a  sentence 
in  a  peculiar  way,  may  be  called  an  apparent  subject,  be- 
cause it  requires  the  verb  following  it  to  be  in  the  third 
person  and  singular  number,  although  the  real  snbjecty 
which  is  placed  after  the  predicate,  may  denote  plu- 
rality ;  as,  *  *  It  was  pleasant  to  see  the  man  and  to  Jiear 
him  talk.''  Refer  frequently  to  the  remarks  on  pages 
59,    60,    202,   and  203. 

2.  Possessive  Pronoims. — Point  out  the  difference  be- 
tween a  possessive  pronoun  and  a  personal  pronoun  in 
the  possessive  case.  Show  that  the  former  represents 
the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed,  while  the  latter 
represents  the  possessor  only.  Teach  that  in  parsing  a 
possessive  pronoun  by  the  first  method,  the  name  of 
the  thing  possessed  is  the  part  considered,  and  that  no 
attention  whatever  is  paid  to  the  name  of  the  possessor; 
also,  that  in  using  the  second  method,  ozvning,  havings 
or  possession  may  be  one  of  the  two  words  into  which  a 
possessive  pronoun  may  be  separated. 

3.  Relative  Pronouns. — Ascertain  that  the  pupils  know 
how  to  distinguish  a  relative  from  a  personal  pronoun. 


ADVANCED  COURSE. 


199 


Show  why  a  relative  pronoun  is  never  found  in  a  prin- 
cipal clause.  Refer  to  the  remarks  on  pages  65,  66,  and 
202  in  parsing  compound  relatives  and  the  words  what 
and  that.  In  analyzing,  refer  to  remarks  on  page  176. 
4.  Interrogative  Pronouns. — Require  pupils  to  study 
Remark  i,  Rule  IX.  Teach  the  use  of  the  interrogative 
pronouns  in  indirect  questions  used  as  objective  ele- 
ments. Use  the  following  diagrams  in  analyzing  sen- 
tences containing  relative  or  interrogative  subordinate 
clauses : 


I .  The  vessel  which  yoii  see 
yo7ider  is  a  sloop. 

vessel     I  is  :  sloop. 


The  I  [_a 

vou  I  see  I  which 


yonder 


2.  I  do  not  know  who  is  in  the 
garden. 


I  I  do  know 


who  I  is 


in  garden. 


the 


not 


TJie  Verb:  I.  Classes  with  respect  to  use. —  Review 
definitions  of  these  classes.  Teach  pupils  how  to  ascer- 
tain from  its  meaning  and  use,  or  by  referring  to  a  dic- 
tionary, whether  a  verb  in  a  given  sentence  is  transitive, 
intransitive,  or  copulative.  In  class  drills,  use  the  exer- 
cises following  the  remarks. 

2.  Classes  with  respect  to  fonn. — Teach  that  when  the 
sound  represented  by  the  vowel  or  digraph  in  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb  is  changed  in  the  past  indicative  and 
perfect  participle,  the  verb  is  irregular ;  as,  hear  is  an 
irregular  verb,  because  the  sound  of  the  vocal  element 
in  the  simple  form  is  changed  in  Jward,  the  past  indica- 
tive and  perfect  participle. 

Properties  of  the  Verb:  I.  Voice. — Require  pupils  to 
study  carefully  the  exercises  following  the  remarks. 


200  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

2,  Mode  and  Tense. — Teach  the  use  and  definition  of 
the  indicative  mode  ;  then  teach  the  subject  of  tense, 
referring  to  the  remarks  for  illustrations  and  explana- 
tions. Develop  the  idea  of  each  mode,  and  ascertain 
that  all  the  pupils  have  a  clear  conception  of  it  before 
permitting  them  to  learn  the  definition.  Omit  none  of 
the  exercises.  Teach  the  form  and  use  of  the  sUrngth- 
ened  copula,  then  analyze  the  exercises  on  page   165. 

3.  Numbei'  and  Person. — Refer  to  the  remarks  on  page 
94,  and  those  under  Rules  XIII,  XIV,  and  XV,  as  oc- 
casion may  require. 

Forms. — Pupils  should  write  sentences  containing  ex- 
amples of  these  forms.  Special  attention  should  be  paid 
to  progressive  and  passive  forms.  See  that  pupils  can 
tell  without  hesitation  which  participle  is  used  in  each 
form.  Use  the  sentences  written  by  pupils  as  exercises 
in  analysis  and  parsing. 

Conjugation. — Pupils  need  not  commit  the  paradigms 
to  memory,  but  they  should  prepare  synopses  and  write 
sentences,  each  containing  a  verb  in  any  required  voice, 
form,  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person,  until  they  can 
identify  any  verbal  form  at  sight,  and  use  it  readily  in 
sentence-making  and  composition.  (See  ''Exercises," 
page   106.) 

Infinitives. — In  teaching  the  infinitive  mode,  require 
the  pupils  to  study  the  remarks  on  page  ^'j ,  and  those 
following  Rules  XVI  and  XVII.  For  models  for  the 
analysis  of  sentences  containing  infinitives,  see  pages 
164  and  165.  The  infinitive  in  a  strengthened  copula  is 
always  an  adverbial  element  modifying  the  finite  verb ; 
but,  in  analyzing,  it  is  not  necessary  to  separate  such  a 
copula  into  its  parts.  Use  the  diagrams  at  top  of  next 
page. 


ADVANCED  COURSE.  201 

I.    To  hear  is  to  obey.  2.  James  likes  to  work. 

To  hear  |  is:  to  obey.  James  |  likes  |  to  work. 

\  \ 

3.  Clare?tce  seems  to  be  busy.  4.  That  apple  is  not  good  to  eat. 

Clarence  ]  seems  to  be :  busy.  apple       |  is  :      good 


I  That  I    I  not     I  to  eat 


5.  He  has  wheat  to  sell. 
He  I  has  I  wheat 


to  sell. 


The  Adverb. — Require  pupils  to  enlarge  sentences  by 
substituting  phrases  or  clauses  for  adverbs.  Although 
an  adverbial  phrase  may  be  parsed  as  a  single  adverb,  it 
is  sometimes  advisable  to  parse  each  word  in  such  a 
phrase.  (See  Remark  9,  page  216.)  Refer  to  the 
**  General  Remarks"  as  well  as  to  the  **  Cautions"  in 
correcting  false  syntax.  In  analyzing  a  sentence  con- 
taining an  adverbial  clause,    use  this  diagram: 

He  defends  hi7nself  when  he  is  attacked. 
He  I  defends  [  himself 


I         he  I  is  attacked. 


when 


The  Preposition.— '^^m^.xV  5,  page  122,  and  Remark 
I,  page  200,  should  be  studied  very  carefully.  Use 
Model  XX,  page  164,  in  analyzing  a  sentence  containing 
a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  without  a 
governing  word, — also  this  diagram: 

The  weary  traveler  will  reach   Chicago  to-morrow. 
traveler     I  will  reach  |  Chicago 


weary  [  [  ]  to-morrow. 

The 


202 


PRACTICAL    GRAMMAR. 


The  Conjunction. — Do  not  require  pupils  to  learn  the 
classifications  given  in  the  remarks,  or  to  use  the  terms 
employed  in  them  in  parsing  exercises.  When  neces- 
sary, refer  to  the  rem.arks  on  pages  219  and  220.      Use 


these  diagrams : 


I.  He  came  and  went  like 
a  pleasa7it  thought. 

2.   Give  me  neither  poverty  nor 
riches. 

He     came  and  went 

thou]     Give 

me      y^  neither 

1 

y^        poverty 

like  thought. 

1                   \^           7ior 

pleasant 
a 

3.  He  learns  because  he  is  studious. 
He  I  learns 


(because)  he  |  is  :  studious. 


I 


Ellipsis. — Require  pupils  to  supply  words  omitted  in 
reading  lessons  and  in  elliptical  sentences  selected  to  be 
used  as  drill  exercises.      Use  these  diagrams : 


I.  Build  me  here  seven 
altars. 

me 


[ye]  I  Build 


altars. 


here 


seven 


2.  He  spake  as  one  having 
authority. 


He  I  spake 


(as)  one  |  [speaks] 


having  |  authority. 


Abridgment. — Require  pupils  to  abridge  subordinate 
clauses,  and  ascertain  that  they  can  always  distinguish 
between  abridged  propositions  and  elliptical  sentences. 
They  should  also  be  required  to  state  in  their  own  lan- 
guage the  substance  of  the  three  parts  of  Remark  i, 
page  182.      Refer  to  appropriate  parts  of  this  remark  in 


ADVANCED  COURSE. 


203 


parsing   nouns  and   pronouns  in  abridged   propositions. 
Use  these  diagrams : 


I.  /  know  him  to  be  a 
sailor. 


I  I  know 


him 


to  be — sailor. 


2.  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being 
7tiy  enemy, 

I  I  was  :     aware 


not 


of  being — enemy. 


I  his 


my 


3.  The  shower  having  passed^ 
we  pursued  our  journey. 

we  I  pursued  |  journey. 


shower 


our 


The 

having  passed, 


4.  His  being  a  convict  was  not 
then  known. 


being — 
His 

■convict 
a 

was 

known. 

then 
not 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  on  which  the  infinitive  depends 
in  an  abridged  proposition  is  called  the  subject  of  the 
infinitive.  In  parsing  it,  many  prefer  to  use  ihe  follow- 
ing rule:  ''The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case." 


¥ 


HISTORY 


XVI. 

THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

XT  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  study  of  history, 
which  can  be  made  so  interesting,  should  so  often 
prove  unprofitable  drudgery ;  and  that  children,  with  a 
natural  love  of  narrative,  should  become  so  thoroughly 
disgusted  with  the  subject  as  to  retain,  as  long  as  they 
live,   a  dislike  for  historical  reading. 

In  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  these  unhappy  results 
are  due  entirely,  or  in  large  part,  to  bad  methods  of 
teaching.  To  attain  the  best  possible  results,  three 
things  are  essential : 

1.  The  teacher  must  be  properly  prepared  to  handle 
the  subject. 

2.  He  must  take  into  careful  consideration  the  age 
and  capabilities  of  his  pupils,  the  resources  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  the  time  he  is  able  to  give,  in  con- 
nection with  other  branches,    to  this  subject. 

3.  He  must  adopt  a  method  in  conformity  to  these 
conditions,  and  must  plan  his  work  carefully  in  advance 
in  accordance  with  this  method. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation. — There  are  few  teach- 
ers, perhaps,  in  our  common  schools,  who  have  made 
a  specialty  of  the  study  of  history,  and  yet  the  limited 
resources  of  the  ordinary  country  school  and  neigh- 
borhood in  the  way  of  books  of  reference,  demand  that 
the  teacher  be  thoroughly  well-read  in  the  history  of 
the  United   States  in  order  to  supply  as  far  as  possible 

(207) 


208  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 

this  deficiency.  We  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  a  teacher 
must  be  a  student  of  history  in  the  way  of  making 
original  research, — although  this  kind  of  work  would 
certainly  add  to  his  usefulness  as  a  teacher,  and,  as  is 
elsewhere  suggested,  should  by  all  means  be  engaged  in 
so  far  as  local  history  is  concerned, — but  we  do  mean 
to  say,  that,  if  a  teacher  wishes  to  make  his  instruction 
in  history  interesting  and  profitable,  he  must  give  the 
subject  more  than  casual  attention,  and  must  not  limit 
his  class  to  any  text-book  on  the  subject.  In  many 
cases,  the  children's  only  source  of  information  will  be 
the  text-book.  The  teacher,  therefore,  must  store  his 
mind  with  historical  events,  incidents,  and  anecdotes  not 
to  be  found  in  the  ordinary  text-book,  and  be  able  to 
present  them  to  his  class  in  a  manner  so  interesting  as 
to  create  a  taste  for  the  study  of  historical  literature. 
It  will  readily  be  understood  that  a  text-book  of 
history  must  necessarily  use  the  fewest  words  that  will 
serve  to  give  an  outline  of  great  events,  and  must  there- 
fore leave  out  many  incidents  of  the  liveliest  interest, 
but  of  no  great  historical  importance.  These  incidents, 
however,  are  to  the  text  what  the  juice  is  to  an  orange, 
and  a  large  supply  of  them  should  be  at  the  command 
of  every  teacher  who  aims  to  do  valuable  work  in  this 
field  of  study.  This  necessitates  reading,  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  of  some  of  the  standard  authorities,  such 
as  Bancroft,  Hildreth,  etc.,  and  the  wider  the  range  of 
his  reading  the  better.  A  very  full  list  of  such  works 
may  be  made  from  the  references  at  the  close  of  chap- 
ters in  the  Eclectic  History  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
not  supposed  that  all  the  works  mentioned  can  be  ob- 
tained and  read  by  every  teacher  of  history,  but  a  very 
full  list  is  given  with  the  expectation  that  at  least  some 


THE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION.  2O9 

of  the  books  will  be  within  the  reach  of  every  teacher, 
and  that  he  will  consult  as  many  of  them  as  time  and 
circumstances  will  permit. 

Again,  it  is  not  supposed  that  a  teacher  will  endeavor 
to  impart  all  the  information  he  gains  in  this  way  to 
his  class.  The  teacher  is,  on  the  contrary,  called  upon 
to  exercise  the  most  careful  judgment  as  to  when  to 
confine  himself  to  the  text-book  and  when  to  add  to 
the  information  it  presents.  The  facts  of  history  are 
not  all  of  the  same  value.  Certain  great  events  stand 
out  in  bold  relief,  giving  form  and  shape  to  the  whole. 
It  is  these  great  events  that  should  be  dwelt  upon  and 
emphasized,  and  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the 
pupils.  To  do  this,  the  teacher  must  make  them  inter- 
esting by  attractive  and  forcible  narration,  and  must 
present  them  again  and  again  in  different  lights  as 
viewed  by  different  authors. 

Sometimes  the  teacher  will  need  to  illustrate  the 
general  condition  or  state  of  a  certain  period  by  partic- 
ular instances.  Again,  he  w^ill  wish  to  emphasize 
some  great  character,  such  as  Washington,  Hamilton, 
or  Lincoln,  by  striking  passages  from  other  histories  or 
biographies.  Or  the  attention  of  the  class  must  be  di- 
rected particularly  to  some  important  battle  or  some 
great  principle.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  kind  of  work 
demands  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject,  sound 
judgment,  and  a  careful  planning  of  work  before  teach- 
ing is  commenced. 

Restricting  Conditions. — The  principal  obstacles  en- 
countered by  an  enthusiastic  teacher  of  history  in  coun- 
try district  schools,  are  the  limited  time  usually  allotted 
to  the  study  and  the  meager  resources  of  the  neighbor- 
hood in  books  of   reference.      In  many  schools,   history 

E.  M.— 18. 


2 1 0  THE  ECLECTIC  HIST  OR  Y. 

is  crowded  into  one  or  two  terms,  and  a  year  at  the 
utmost  is  considered  a  full  allowance.  We  would  urge, 
if  it  can  possibly  be  managed,  that  at  least  two  years  be 
given  to  the  subject,  as,  in  our  opinion,  that  amount  of 
time  is  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results. 
Two  or  three  recitations  a  week,  for  two  years,  will  be 
found  preferable  to  a  daily  recitation  for  one  year.  The 
former  plan  gives  both  teacher  and  pupil  the  requisite 
time  for  outside  reading  and  the  proper  preparation  of 
the  lesson.  Each  teacher,  however,  must  be  his  own 
judge  as  to  whether  this  plan  is  practicable  in  his  par- 
ticular school,  and  must  modify  his  method  of  teaching 
accordingly. 

Where  the  locality  is  without  books  to  which  the  chil- 
dren can  be  referred,  the  teacher  must  exert  himself  to 
supply  as  much  extra  valuable  and  interesting  informa- 
tion as  possible  from  his  own  store  of  knowledge.  The 
difficulty  of  obtaining  this  kind  of  information  is  fully 
appreciated,  and  much  valuable  and  interesting  detail, — 
which  hardly  has  a  place  in  the  text  proper,  but  which 
could  not  be  obtained  by  pupils  without  a  larger  library 
of  reference  than  most  neighborhoods  afford, — has  there- 
fore been  condensed  in  the  notes  of  the  Eclectic  His- 
tory. But  the  teacher  should  not  depend  upon  these 
notes  alone.  He  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the 
more  reading  he  does,  and  the  greater  variety  of  little 
incidents  and  fresh  facts  he  can  tell  the  class,  the  more 
life  and  interest  will  he  infuse  into  the  recitations. 

The  restrictions  of  age  and  capability  are  also  im- 
portant. The  teacher  must  be  warned  against  treating 
the  subject  in  such  a  way  as  to  discourage  pupils  by 
presenting  difficulties  too  great  for  their  minds  to  grasp. 
Pupils  should  certainly  be  incited  to  effort,  but  it  is  best 


METHODS  OF   TEACHING.  211 

to  keep  well  within  the  limits  of  their  understanding  and 
capacities,  especially  in  the  early  part  of  the  course. 

While  the  limitations  of  the  ordinary  district  school 
are  thoroughly  comprehended,  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance that  the  aims  of  the  teacher  should  be  high ; 
we  therefore  make  the  following  suggestions  as  to  the 
method  of  teaching  on  the  supposition  that  the  time 
necessary  for  effective  work  zvill  be  taken,  and  that  the 
teacher  will  exert  himself  to  secure  the  requisite  books 
of  reference  for  his  pupils.  If  this  can  not  be  done  in 
all  cases,  at  least  the  teacher  can  approach  as  near  as 
possible  to  what  he  knows  to  be  the  correct  method  of 
teaching. 

As  has  been  remarked  in  regard  to  other  studies,  it 
is  not  claimed  that  the  method  here  advised  is  the  only 
correct  method  of  teaching  the  history  of  the  United 
States,  but  it  is  the  one  urged  because  it  is  believed  to 
be  the  most  profitable  and  the  most  interesting  method 
to  pupils. 

Methods  of  Teaching. — In  selecting  a  method  of 
teaching  history,  one  must  consider  not  only  the  capa- 
bilities of  pupils  and  the  resources  available,  but  also 
the  objects  to  be  accomplished,  and  how  he  can  best 
accomplish  them. 

The  primary  object  in  teaching  this  subject,  as  usually 
and  perhaps  fairly  considered,  is  to  give  the  pupil  a 
clear  and  tolerably  comprehensive  view  of  the  history  of 
the  United  States  from  the  earliest  records  to  the 
present  day.  But  there  is  a  secondary  object  of  but 
little,  if  any,  less  importance,  which  should  be  kept 
constantly  in  view,  and  which  should  modify  very 
largely  the  means  to  be  adopted  in  attaining  the  first 
object. 


2 1 2  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTOR  V. 

This  secondary  object,  which  is  by  many  high  author- 
ities considered  the  primary  one  in  importance,  is  to 
arouse  in  the  pupils  a  love  and  an  enthusiasm  for  the 
study,  which  they  will  carry  with  them  into  after  life, 
and  which  will  give  a  most  valuable  bent  to  their  future 
individual  study  and  reading. 

The  teacher  who  simply  takes  any  given  text-book, 
and  gives  out  lesson  after  lesson,  from  page  to  page,  or 
from  such  a  paragraph  to  such  a  paragraph,  and  re- 
quires the  pupil  to  repeat  the  words  of  the  book,  or 
even  the  ideas  of  the  book  in  his  own  words,  limiting 
his  instruction  ineirly  to  tkiSy  is  teaching  a  book ;  he  is 
not  teaching  the  history  of  the  United  States  in  a  way 
that  will  be  in  the  least  likely  to  prove  either  interest- 
ing or  of  any  lasting  benefit  to  his  pupils.  To  be  sure, 
this  is  the  easiest  method  for  the  teacher,  but  it  is  also 
a  method  that  means  sure  death  to  all  interest  on  the 
part  of  both  teacher  and  pupil.  It  may  properly  be 
called  the  text-book  method,  and  usually  consists  in 
cramming  the  children  with  what  must  be  to  them  a 
mere  mass  of  dry-as-dust  statements  of  events,  facts, 
and  dates,  strung  along  in  chronological  order,  with  the 
dead-level  monotony  of  balls  on  a  numeral  frame.  This 
method  may  teach  children  history ;  it  certainly  will 
teach  them  to  dislike  it,  and  will  unavoidably  prejudice 
them  against  all  historical  reading  forever  after. 

The  text-book  method  is  probably  the  most  common 
of  all  bad  methods ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be 
just  as  absurd  and  profitless  to  go  to  the  opposite 
extreme,  and  treat  children  twelve  to  fifteen  years  of  age 
as  though  they  were  college  students ;  that  is,  discarding 
the  text-book  altogether,  to  attempt  to  teach  by  lectures 
alone,  requiring  the  children  to  take  notes,  and  hand  in 


THE  GERMAN  METHOD.  213 

written  themes  on  topics  clearly  beyond  their  compre- 
hension, such  as  "The  Protective  Tariff,"  "The  Mon- 
roe Doctrine,"  etc. 

In  Germany,  history  is  taught  more  successfully,  per- 
haps, than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world,  and  while 
the  German  method,  pure  and  simple,  is  entirely  inap- 
plicable to  the  common  schools  of  America  as  at  present 
conducted,  yet  it  is  so  thorough  and  rational  that  we 
give  a  brief  account  of  it,  intending  to  refer  to  it  in  the 
method  we  shall  suggest  for  adoption. 

In  Germany,  the  teacher  of  primary  history  is  pre- 
pared for  his  work  by  a  special  course  of  study,  and 
confines  his  teaching  to  this  one  branch  of  education. 
He  has  a  most  thorough  knowledge  of  his  subject,  and 
is  an  expert  teller  of  stories.  The  children  are  started 
in  their  historical  course  at  nine  or  ten  years  of  age, 
and  the  first  two  years  are  employed  with  biographical 
sketches  of  prominent  historical  characters,  presented  in 
the  form  of  interesting  and  impressive  stories,  to  which 
the  children  listen  with  absorbed  attention.  This  course 
covers  the  ground  of  universal  history.  The  next  three 
or  four  years,  the  children  are  taken  over  the  same 
ground,  but  from  a  different  point  of  view :  they  now 
listen  to  the  description  of  events,  and  have  their  atten- 
tion directed  to  the  causes,  purposes,  and  results  of  his- 
torical movements.  The  children  are  now  fifteen  or 
sixteen  years  of  age,  and  have  completed  two  distinct 
views  of  universal  history.  It  will  be  noticed  that  thus 
far  the  children  have  simply  listened — the  teacher  has 
done  all  the  talking.  This  method  is  based  upon  the 
idea  that  children  up  to  this  age  are  incapable  of  the 
unremitting  application  necessary  to  the  profitable  study 
of  a  text-book ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  per- 


2 1 4  THE  ECLECTIC  HIST  OR  V. 

fectly  capable  of  acquiring  the  information  imparted  by 
the  teacher  in  the  form  of  entertaining  stories.  It  is 
held  that  this  method  is  a  true  economy  of  time,  and 
that  by  its  use  children  are  thoroughly  interested  instead 
of  being  worn  out  and  discouraged. 

After  completing  the  two  courses  of  lectures  de- 
scribed, the  pupils  take  up  some  special  topic  or 
period, — perhaps  the  history  of  their  own  country, — on 
which  they  spend  three  or  four  years  of  study,  and  are 
then  ready  for  the  higher  and  more  philosophical  course 
of  the   university.''^ 

American  teachers,  however,  must  adapt  their  methods 
to  the  requirements  of  American  schools,  and  though 
the  German  method  is  admirable  in  its  results,  it  is  un- 
fortunately beyond  our  reach  at  present.  While  neither 
the  text-book  method,  the  college  method,  nor  the 
German  method  should  be  attempted  in  our  common 
schools,  yet  it  is  believed  that,  by  a  judicious  combina- 
tion of  certain  features  of  each  of  these  methods,  the 
very  best  results  possible  may  be  obtained,  taking  into 
consideration  the  restrictions  of  our  schools. 

The  text-book  is  without  doubt  indispensable.  It 
should  be  used,  however,  simply  as  the  outline  of  the 
great  picture,  which  must  be  filled  in  and  colored  by 
both  pupil  and  teacher.  Children  should  be  encouraged 
to  consult  as  many  books  as  possible,  and  thus  be  freed 
from  the  idea  that   history   is  a  book,    or   that   it   is   the 


*  For  a  full  exposition  of  the  German  method,  and  for  much 
valuable  information  on  methods  of  teaching  history,  especially  in 
advanced  schools  and  colleges,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  "Methods 
of  Teaching  and  Studying  History,"  published  by  Ginn,  Heath 
&  Co. 


THE  COLLEGE  METHOD.  21  5 

product  or  summary  of  any  one  person's  thoughts  and 
opinions.  At  the  same  time,  the  text-book  must  be 
used  very  largely  as  a  guide.  If  properly  compiled,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Eclectic  History,  it  will  show  at  a 
glance  the  relative  importance  of  characters  and  events, 
and  will  thus  indicate  the  features  which  demand  especial 
attention.  The  danger  is,  not  that  the  text-book  will 
be  used  too  little,    but  that  it  will  be  used  improperly. 

The  German  idea  of  imparting  information  to  young 
children  by  means  of  interesting  stories  is  extremely 
valuable,  and  this  plan  should  be  followed  to  the  utmost 
possible  limit.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  ordinary 
teacher  in  American  common  schools  is  particularly 
weak.  As  before  stated,  the  teacher  is  called  on  to 
exercise  good  judgment  in  selecting  his  material.  He 
should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  entire  subject,  and, 
viewing  the  field  as  a  whole,  grade  the  various  events  in 
the  order  of  their  importance.  Those  of  the  first  rank 
must,  of  course,  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  atten- 
tion in  the  way  of  extraneous  information.  The  teacher 
should  strive  to  make  his  lectures,  or  rather  his  stories, 
as  interesting  as  possible  from  the  child's  point  of  view, 
and  must  never  forget  that  it  is  to  children,  and  not  to 
adults  of  mature  mind,  that  he  is  addressing  himself 

The  college  method,  as  usually  followed  in  our  lead- 
ing institutions  of  learning,  includes,  not  only  lectures  by 
the  professor,  but  also  the  writing  of  themes  by  the 
students.  Different  topics  are  assigned  to  students  for 
their  personal  investigation  and  study,  and  they  are  re- 
quired to  draw  their  own  conclusions,  after  reading 
various  authorities  on  the  subject,  and  then  to  present 
these  conclusions  in  the  form  of  a  written  theme.  Here, 
again,    we  receive  a   hint   of   practical  value.      If  books 


2 1 6  THE  E  CL  EC  TIC  HIS  TOR  Y. 

of  reference  are  at  all  available,  it  will  prove  a  source 
of  great  interest  to  children  to  read  upon  properly  se- 
lected topics,  and  to  write  their  discoveries  in  the  form 
of  compositions.  This  work  will  not  only  prove  inter- 
esting, but  it  will  also  serve  to  fix  facts  more  firmly  in 
the  mind  than  any  other  method  of  teaching. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  assigning  these  subjects 
for  composition.  In  the  first  place,  the  teacher  is  nec- 
essarily restricted  by  the  resources  of  the  neighborhood 
in  books  of  reference.  In  assigning  topics  for  composi- 
tion work,  find  out  definitely,  if  you  can,  just  what 
books  on  the  subject  are  available,  and  then  direct  the 
children  where  to  look  for  information.  General  direc- 
tions to  children  to  read  all  they  can  find  about  a  topic 
will  be  of  little  value.  See  to  it,  also,  that  compositions 
on  historical  subjects  are  in  the  child's  own  language. 
The  copying  of  passages  from  books,  word  for  word, 
should  not  be  allowed,  except,  of  course,  the  per- 
fectly proper  use  of  short  quotations,  acknowledged  as 
such. 

The  teacher  should  review  the  entire  field  as  he  did  in 
selecting  material  for  stories,  and  should  assign  only 
topics  of  real  importance.  He  should  be  especially 
careful,  in  this  part  of  the  work,  not  to  over-estimate 
the  capabilities  of  pupils,  and  assign  to  children  topics 
and  the  discussion  of  questions  which  are  food  for 
statesmen's  minds.  It  is  eminently  proper  to  direct  the 
attention  of  children — those  who  are  old  enough  to 
study  history  at  all — to  causes,  purposes,  and  results, 
provided  the  topics  under  discussion  are  within  their 
comprehension ;  but  it  is  absurd  to  try  to  make  them 
understand,  or  to  interest  them  in,  grave  questions  of 
Political     Economy,     International    Law,     and    abstruse 


LOCAL    HISTORY.  21/ 

points  of  statesmanship  generally.  Let  them  deal  in 
their  composition  work  with  the  biographies  of  the  most 
eminent  historical  characters,  and  with  interesting  and 
important  facts  rather  than  with  theories. 

Local  History. — Begin  your  work  by  awakening  a 
sense  of  reality  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  and  make  him 
sure  that  the  persons,  places,  and  events  of  which  he 
reads  were  as  vivid  and  actual  as  any  that  he  has  seen. 
The  question  immediately  arises,  How  is  this  best  ac- 
complished ? 

It  has  been  well  said  by  an  eminent  professor,  in 
writing  on  this  subject,  that  "■  History,  like  charity,  be- 
gins at  home;"  and  certainly  local  history,  which  has  to 
do  with  scenes,  and  perhaps  persons,  familiar  to  the  chil- 
dren, possesses  a  peculiar  charm  and  interest,  and  im- 
parts to  the  mind  a  vivid  sense  of  reality.  For  this 
reason,  local  history  should  be  made  the  introduction  to 
the  general  text-book.  You  thus  accustom  the  child 
to  associate  spoken  or  printed  descriptions  with  actual 
scenes  and  events.  In  other  words,  the  child  learns  to 
realize  the  actual  existence  in  the  past  of  that  concern- 
ing which  he  is  studying  to-day.  The  habit  of  viewing 
history  in  this  light  must  be  formed  at  the  outset,  and 
then  interest  in  the  study  will  be  maintained  to  the 
close.  This  is  a  point  of  vital  importance,  and  should 
not  be  undervalued. 

The  teacher  should  make  a  careful,  searching  study 
of  all  the  local  history  of  his  neighborhood,  township, 
county  and  state,  as  contained  in  old  official  documents, 
private  papers,  legends,  or  traditions.  Any  thing  that 
will  throw  light  on  the  local  history,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  likely  to  prove  of  value  or  of  interest  to  the 
class  may  properly  be  used,  and  there  is  hardly  a  state 

E.  M.— 19. 


21 8  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 

in  the  Union  that   is  not   replete  with   material   of   this 
character. 

When  you  have  your  material  together,  arrange  it  in 
the  form  of  stories  suitable  for  children.  The  stories 
concerning  the  immediate  neighborhood  should  come 
first  in  the  order  of  telling,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
children  should  be  taken  to  see  all  the  localities  to 
which  your  stories  refer.  If  any  characters  at  all  prom- 
inent in  history  are  associated  with  your  neighborhood, 
short  biographical  sketches  of  these  should  also  be 
given,  and  the  teacher  will  probably  be  able  to  obtain 
better  material  for  these  sketches  in  the  documents, 
letters,  etc.,  of  the  neighborhood  than  is  afforded  by 
any  book  published.  By  all  means  tell  these  stories, 
rather  than  read  them,  if  you  would  make  vivid  and 
lasting  impressions  on  the  children. 

After  taking  up  the  text-book,  continue  to  make 
much  of  familiar  places  and  natural  objects  so  far  as 
they  are  mentioned  in  the  history,  or  can  be  connected 
appropriately  with  the  text.  The  tiny  brook  that  runs 
through  the  meadow  by  the  school-house  may  have  a 
pre-Revolutionary  history  which  will  portray  vividly  to 
the  child's  mind  the  general  condition  of  danger  and 
hardship  of  that  period.  The  states  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  **The  Dark  and  Bloody  Ground,"  and  "The  Ter- 
ritory North-west  of  the  Ohio  River,"  afford  the  ambi- 
tious and  energetic  teacher  an  almost  inexhaustible  field 
for  labor  in  this  direction.  This  work  of  original  inves- 
tigation demands  both  time  and  trouble,  but  it  is  also  a 
kind  of  work  that  should  possess  a  strong  interest  for 
the  teacher  himself.  If  patiently  persisted  in,  it  will  in 
the  end  prove  a  pleasure  rather  than  a  labor ;  or  if  a 
labor,   at  least  one  which  returns  a  rich  reward. 


MAPS  AND  DIAGRAMS.  219 

Maps  and  Diagrams. — When  we  consider  how  much 
the  physical  features  of  a  country  have  to  do  with  its 
progress,,  we  appreciate  how  closely  geography  and  his- 
tory are  connected,  and  how  essential  a  knowledge  of 
the  former  is  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  latter. 
A  barren  and  rocky  soil,  or  a  richly  productive  one, 
determines  the  pursuits,  and  in  a  large  measure  the 
character  of  the  inhabitants  of  different  localities.  A 
mountain  barrier  here  and  a  navigable  stream  there  de- 
termine the  advance  of  civilization, — and  so  on.  It  is 
essential,  then,  to  the  understanding  and  interest  of  the 
pupils  that  they  should  be  thoroughly  instructed  in  the 
geography  before  undertaking  the  history  of  the  United 
States. 

But  the  teacher  should  go  farther  than  this ;  he  should 
require  that  history  be  studied  in  direct  connection  with 
geography,  thus  combining  events  and  localities  so  that 
one  is  inevitably  associated  in  the  mind  with  the  other; 
and  this  method  of  teaching  should  be  carried  through- 
out the  work  from  beginning  to  end.  With  this  object 
in  view,  the  Eclectic  History  is  well  supplied  with 
full,  accurate  maps  and  diagrams ;  but  no  text-book 
can  possibly  be  made  so  full  in  this  respect  but  that  a 
teacher  should  add  maps  and  diagrams  of  his  own  for 
further  and  more  explicit  illustration.  Moreover,  the 
children  themselves  should  be  called  upon  to  make 
sketch-maps  and  diagrams,  either  on  the  board  or  on 
paper,  of  the  particular  locality  under  study  in  any 
given  lesson. 

Assigning  Work  for  the  Class. — In  assigning  ad- 
vance work  for  the  class,  the  teacher  should  give  the 
pupils  all  the  assistance  he  can  towards  making  their 
lessons  interesting  and    profitable.      Young  children   cs- 


220  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 

pecially    need    to    be    guided    into    proper    channels    of 
thought,    reading,   and  study. 

Assign  lessons  by  topics.  It  is  not  meant  by  this 
that  all  topics  can  be  finished  in  one  lesson,  or  that  one 
topic  is  always  sufficient  for  a  lesson.  That,  of  course, 
depends  upon  the  topic;  and  one  of  the  chief  objects  of 
this  method  is  to  lead  children  to  consider  the  relative 
importance  of  topics,  which  will  be  impressed  upon 
them  by  the  amount  of  time  and  study  given  to  each. 

When  you   assign   a   lesson   in    the  text-book,    always 
read   over   the   advance   Avith    the    class,    explaining    any 
thing  that  demands   your   help,    and   directing   attention 
to    the     most    important    events.       Explain    wJiy    these 
events   are    important,    and    direct    the    thought    of    the 
class  particularly  to  causes,  purposes,  and  results  of  the 
great    events    in    our    history.      Use    your    discretion    in 
assigning  certain   topics   merely  as  subjects  for  reading, 
and    others    for    written    work.      Some    teachers    find    an 
advantage  in  giving  extra  merit-marks  or  "honors"   for 
additional  items  of  information  brought  to  the  class  con- 
cerning the  characters  and  events  of  the  lesson.     These 
items  will  usually  be  collected  from  books  of  reference, 
but    sometimes     from     unauthentic    sources, — newspaper 
articles    or   the    tales    of   the   village    Rip    Van    Winkle. 
The   teacher  should  be  careful  to  sift  the  true  from  the 
false  in  all  such  contributions;  and  it  will  nearly  always 
be  advisable  to  direct  children  where  they  can  find  inter- 
esting facts,   rather  than  trust   to  their  blind  groping  in 
the   dark. 

Dates. — While  quite  a  full  list  of  dates'  is  presented 
in  the  Eclectic  History,  the  young  teacher  should  be 
warned  against  attaching  too  much  importance  to  chro- 
nology.     Dates  should  be  viewed   in  their  proper  light. 


TEACHING  DATES.  221 

They  are  simply  the  mile-stones  on  the  journey  of 
progress ;  as  such  they  are  extremely  useful,  but  they 
are  not  of  more  importance  than  the  surrounding 
scenery. 

Dates  should  not  be  taught  in  a  list,  in  chronological 
order,  as  though  one  event  was  as  important  as  another. 
Select  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  of  the  most  important 
dates  in  the  history — as  your  judgment  dictates — and 
teach  these  tJiorotighly.  Now,  if  the  text  be  properly 
taught,  the  relative  times  of  minor  events  will  be  re- 
membered easily,  and  their  dates  will  group  themselves 
naturally  about  the  prominent  or  focal  dates  with- 
out much  apparent  effort  of  memory.  For  example, 
the  date  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  may  be 
taken  as  one  of  the  focal  dates,  which  must  be  fixed 
thoroughly  in  the  mind.  If  the  text  be  taught  as  it 
should  be,  the  pupils  will  have  no  difficulty  in  remem- 
bering the  relative  times  of  the  various  events  that 
cluster  about  this  focal  date  ;  and  there  will  be  no  neces- 
sity of  cramming  them  with  the  exact  figures  of  such 
dates  as  those  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  and  the 
evacuation  of  Boston,  on  the  one  side,  or  of  the  arrival 
of  Lord  Howe  in  New  York  and  the  battle  of  Long 
Island  on  the  other. 

Many  schemes  have  been  devised  for  assisting  the 
mind  to  recall  dates.  In  our  opinion,  diagrams  made 
on  the  blackboard  or  on  paper  by  the  scholars  them- 
selves are  far  better  than  stereotyped  charts.  If  a  black- 
board can  be  permanently  spared  for  the  purpose,  let  it 
be  divided  by  perpendicular  lines  into  six  sections,  the 
extremes  to  right  and  left  being  much  broader  than  the 
rest,  while  the  fourth  and  fifth  are  broader  than  the 
second  and  third.      A  large  sheet  of  bristol-board  or  of 


222  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 

paper   will   answer    the   purpose   if   a   blackboard   is  not 
available,  but  it,  too,  should  be  kept  before  the  eyes  of 
the  class  for  reasons  which  will  shortly  appear. 
Over  the  first  section,  on  the  left,   write : 

America  before  1492. 

In  the  center  of  this  left  hand  section,  leaving  margins 
on  four  sides,  draw  a  square  and  write  within  it : 


Colofiy  in  Greenland^  .  .  .  .  A.  D.  gS^. 
Visit  of  Lief  to  New  England,  .  A.  D.  looo. 
Icelandic  Settlements,      .     .     .     .     A.  D.  looj. 


Over  the  other  five  sections  respectively  write  the 
numbers  of  the  centuries,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  as  shown 
in  the  diagram  on  the  opposite  page.  Under  these  let 
a  pupil  note  briefly,  by  the  direction  of  the  rest  of 
the  class,  the  most  important  events  and  dates  of  each 
day's  lesson  as  it  is  recited.  The  blank  spaces  will  be  a 
reminder  of  how  much  is  yet  to  be  learned,  while  the 
filling  up  of  the  sections  will   be  a  record   of  progress. 

The  events  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  of  course  very 
few,  as  related  to  America,  and  the  "Discovery  of 
AxMERicA  BY  Columbus  "  should  be  written  as  large  as 
its  importance  demands.  This  is  the  focal  date  of  that 
century,  but  a  few  dates  may  be  added,  if  thought  de- 
sirable, from  Notes  1-4  of  Chapter  III.  If  other  than 
the  focal  dates  are  thus  recorded,  the  latter  should  be 
made  prominent  by  being  written  larger  than  the  others, 
by  being  underscored,  or  in  the  best  manner  that  may 
suggest  itself  to  the  teacher. 


TEACHING  DATES. 


223 


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224  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 

A  moment  or  two  will  be  well  spent  before  each  reci- 
tation in  reviewing  from  this  chart  the  items,  if  any, 
noted  on  the  previous  day.  At  the  end  of  the  week, 
let  all  the  events  so  far  learned  be  read  from  the  chart, 
or  recited,  with  their  dates,  until  each  of  the  six  main 
divisions  of  the  book  has  been  thus  learned  and  re- 
viewed chronologically. 

Prejudices. — Neither  author  nor  teacher  should  allow 
his  personal  prejudices  to  appear  in  his  educational 
work.  A  text-book  is  not  a  brief,  nor  is  a  teacher  a 
lawyer  employed  to  argue  a  case.  A  properly  prepared 
text-book  aims  to  present  facts,  not  opinions,  as  exactly 
as  they  can  be  ascertained  from  the  most  reliable  sources 
of  information.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  perform  his 
share  of  the  work  in  the  same  impartial  spirit.  How- 
ever strong  the  personal  feelings  may  be  in  the  matters 
of  religion  and  politics,  neither  author  nor  teacher 
has  the  right  to  obtrude  such  personal  feelings  in  the 
school-room,  where  children,  whose  parents  may  be  of 
widely  different  opinions  and  feelings  in  such  matters, 
meet  for  instruction. 

The  public  schools  of  America  should  present  nothing 
needlessly  offensive  to  Jew  or  Gentile,  Protestant  or 
Catholic,  Republican  or  Democrat.  At  the  same  time, 
the  truths  of  history  should  be  fearlessly  set  forth  by 
both  author  and  teacher,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  the 
truth  can  not  always  be  universally  agreeable.  For  ex- 
ample, it  can  not  be  a  source  of  pride  for  inhabitants  of 
New  England  to  learn  the  events  of  the  * '  Salem  witch- 
craft," or  of  the  persecution  of  the  Quakers  and  others 
by  their  forefathers  ;  nor  for  Protestants  to  learn  of  the 
persecution  of  the  Catholics  in  Maryland,  nor  for  Cath- 
olics to  read  of  the  massacres  of  the   Huguenots.     The 


PR  EJUDICES.  225 

results  of  the  battles  of  Bull  Run  and  Gettysburg  can 
not  be  equally  pleasant  reading  to  one  who  is  prejudiced 
on  either  side.  But  the  statement  of  many  such  facts  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  history,  and  it  seems  almost 
needless  to  say  that  it  would  be  radically  wrong  to  dis- 
tort or  suppress  such  facts  when  they  have  a  direct 
bearing  on  historical  results.  All  such  facts  should  be 
stated  by  both  author  and  teacher  fearlessly  but  impar- 
tially. 

The  author  of  the  Eclectic  History  has  taken  the 
greatest  pains  to  make  that  book  absolutely  impartial  in 
all  statements  which  necessarily  touch  upon  the  religious 
or  political  sentiments  of  its  readers.  The  highest  pos- 
sible compliment  that  could  be  paid  to  the  author's 
discrimination  in  this  respect  consists  in  the  fact  that 
the  book  has  been  assailed  only  by  fanatics  and  extrem- 
ists, and  by  fanatics  and  extremists  of  opposing  factions. 
The  teacher  is  urged  to  conduct  his  recitations  in  the 
same  intelligent  and  unpartisan  spirit.  He  must  not 
allow  himself  to  be  led  into  a  partisan  or  sectarian  dis- 
cussion by  questions  which  his  pupils  may  sometimes 
ask.  He  will  often  find  it  necessary  to  exercise  a 
spirit  of  liberality  and  self-control. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  the  history  of  the  United 
States  to  teach,  in  this  particular,  is  of  course  that  part 
which  treats  of  the  Civil  War,  fought  to  conclusion 
more  than  twenty  years  ago.  It  is  time  that  the  educa- 
tors of  the  present  day  were  doing  all  in  their  power  to 
allay  the  bitter  feelings  aroused  in  that  sad  time,  and, 
whether  Northerner  or  Southerner,  teach  the  facts  of 
that  war  as  they  are  now  obtained  from  the  official 
records  of  both  sides.  It  is  believed  that  the  Eclectic 
History  presents  these  facts  as  impartially  as  it  is  possi- 


226  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 

ble  to  be  done.  Teach  them  as  impartially  as  they  are 
presented.  If  you  are  a  Northerner,  avoid  teaching  on 
the  assumption  that  every  one  who  fought  on  the 
Southern  side  was  necessarily  a  scoundrel  and  a  villain. 
If  you  are  a  Southerner,  be  equally  liberal  towards  the 
opposing  ranks  of  twenty  years  ago. 

Prejudice  nearly  always  involves  the  distortion  of  the 
truth  ;  therefore,  the  stronger  your  feelings  are  on  any 
subject,  the  more  carefully  should  you  guard  against 
their  leading  you  astray.  Especially  should  this  fact  be 
remembered  by  one  whose  duty  it  is  to  enlighten  the 
minds  of  coming  generations. 


XVII. 

THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY.— THE  APPENDIX. 

THE  Appendix  of  the  Eclectic  History  of  the 
United  States  should  by  no  means  be  neglected ; 
nor  should  the  matter  it  contains  be  considered  of 
trivial  importance  because  it  is  placed  in  an  appendix, 
and  not  included  in  the  text  proper.  It  seems  neces- 
sary to  make  these  remarks,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
many  teachers  are  in  the  habit  of  paying  no  attention 
whatever  to  an  appendix  simply  because  it  is  an  appen- 
dix, totally  disregarding  the  possible  importance  of  the 
information  to  be  derived  from  its  careful  study. 

The  matter  in  the  appendix  of  the  Eclectic  History 
may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  two  distinct  courses  of 
study,  embracing  information  especially  valuable  to 
pupils  of  country  schools,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  not 
usually  elsewhere  accessible  to  such  pupils,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  is  information  they  certainly  should  possess. 
The   two   courses    may   be   formally   divided   as  follows: 

1.  The  acquisition  and  transfer  of  territory,  and  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  United  States. 

2.  The  political  history  and  form  of  government  of 
the  United  States. 

As  stated,  the  matter  in  the  te^^t-book  is  intended  to 
be  used  merely  as  a  basis  of  instruction  ;  it  should  be 
supplemented  by  lectures  or  talks  by  the  teacher.  Both 
courses  of  study  demand  work,  however,  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils,  which  it  is  thought  will  prove  interesting  as 
well  as  profitable. 

(227) 


228  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 


Acquisition  and  Transfer  of  Territory. — Growth  and 

Development. 

The  map  following  page  360  of  the  Eclectic  History, 
and  the  explanations  accompanying  it,  are  to  be  used  as 
a  basis  for  the  first  part  of  this  course  of  study.  It  will 
be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  procure,  also,  a  small 
blackboard,  say  three  or  four  feet  square,  on  which 
should  be  painted  in  white  an  outline  of  the  United 
States,  including  Alaska.  The  materials  for  constructing 
this  board  and  map  are  probably  within  reach  of  every 
teacher.  One  or  two  pine  boards,  a  httle  black  and  less 
white  paint,  and  a  few  hours'  work  are  all  that  is  re- 
quired. This  base-map,  as  it  may  be  called,  which  is  to 
be  used  throughout  the  course,  should  show  simply  the 
outline  of  the  United  States  as  it  exists  at  present,  the 
principal  streams,  and  the  meridians  and  parallels.  The 
latter  will  be  found  very  useful  aids  in  locating  the 
different  interior  boundary  lines,  which  are  to  be  filled 
in  with  chalk  as  occasion  demands.  The  present  boun- 
dary lines  of  states  should  not  be  painted  on  the  base- 
map,  as  they  would  detract  from  the  clearness  of  the 
work  to  be  performed. 

Having  prepared  your  base-map,  proceed  to  trace  the 
acquisition  and  transfers  of  territory  of  the  United 
States  from  the  Revolution  to  the  present  day,  using 
the  map  in  the  book,  as  a  guide  for  the  interior  boun- 
daries. This  work  requires  the  greatest  care,  otherwise 
serious  blunders  will  be  made,  and  your  instruction  may 
do  more  harm  than  good. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  show  the  boundaries 
of  the   United   States   as   established    by   the    treaty   of 


THE  BASE- MAP.  22g 

Versailles  (see  Article  309),  and  the  boundaries  of  the 
thirteen  original  states.  Have  the  pupils  open  their 
books  at  page  one  of  the  Appendix,  and,  reading  the 
explanations  there,  tell  you  where  to  draw  the  outlines 
of  the  several  states  in  order.  If  you  can  procure 
colored  crayons — two  or  three  colors  will  be  sufficient — 
it  will  add  materially  to  the  clearness  of  your  map  to 
shade  adjoining  states  in  different  colors.  It  will  be 
observed  that  many  of  the  states  extended  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  the  Mississippi  River,  at  this  period, 
while  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  were  divided  into 
eastern  and  western  portions,  with  other  states  lying  be- 
tween them.  The  northern  and  eastern  boundary  of  the 
present  state  of  Maine  was  not  settled  until  1842  (see 
Article  436),  but  may  be  laid  down  as  forming  part  of 
the  boundary  line  of  the  United  States  at  this  time. 
When  the  map  is  completed,  put  the  proper  title  and 
date,  1783,  on  it,  and  have  the  class  copy  it  on  bristol- 
board;  or,  better  still,  in  a  book,  and  mark  it  "No.  i." 
As  will  be  seen,  there  is  to  be  a  regular  series  of  these 
maps  drawn,  and  the  children  should  be  req.uired  to  pre- 
serve the  set  in  some  neat  form. 

The  first  change  of  boundary  lines  occurred,  we  find, 
in  1784,  when  Virginia  ceded  her  western  lands  to  the 
United  States.  This  was  followed  rapidly  by  similar 
cessions  of  other  states,  until  in  1790  the  changes  be- 
came so  great  that  a  new  map  is  called  for,  showing  the 
boundaries  at  that  date.  Trace  the  boundaries  for  this 
map  as  you  did  those  for  Map  No.  i,  requiring  the  pupils 
to  study  the  key  and  give  you  instructions  how  to  lay 
the  boundaries  down.  Insert  on  this  map  the  date  of 
the  several  cessions,  following  the  map  in  the  book  as  a 
guide.      Give  the  map  its  title,    ''The  United   States   in 


230  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 

1790,"  and  mark  it  "No.   2."     Have  the  children  copy 
and  preserve  this,   as  before. 

Make  a  map  for  every  decade,  1800,  18 10,  etc.,  and 
also  a  map  of  the  country  at  the  time  of  the  several 
accessions  or  limitations  of  territory  in  1 803,  18 19,  1842, 
1845,  1846,  1848,  1853,  and  1867,  marking  on  each 
map  the  changes,  with  their  dates,  that  have  taken  place 
since  the  date  of  the  map  preceding. 

As  each  of  these  maps  is  completed,  that  portion  of 
the  text  of  the  Eclectic  History  which  bears  directly 
upon  the  changes  noted  should  be  read  over  by  the 
pupils  with  the  map  before  their  eyes.  Many  facts  are 
thus  impressively  brought  out  and  stamped  on  the 
memory.  For  example,  a  study  of  the  map  of  1820 
will  at  once  show  the  importance  of  the  contest  over 
the  admission  of  Missouri,  etc. 

When  these  maps  are  completed,  each  pupil  will  have 
a  valuable  portfolio  showing  the  gradual  territorial  de- 
velopment of  the  United  States.  Moreover,  they  will 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  which  they  could  gain 
probably  in  no  other  way,  and  which  they  will  always 
retain. 

In  addition  to  showing  the  territorial  development  of 
the  United  States,  the  base-map  can  also  be  used  to  do 
excellent  service  in  showing  graphically  the  growth  of 
the  population  and  the  distribution  of  the  various  lead- 
ing mineral  and  agricultural  products  of  the  country. 

It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  the  graphic  method  of 
presenting  facts  of  this  nature  is  immeasurably  superior 
to  mere  statistics  and  dry  statements.  Moreover,  the 
amount  of  work  required  from  the  teacher  is  merely 
nominal.  For  example,  the  accompanying  maps  show 
the   areas   of   the   United    States   in   1790  and   1880,   re- 


INCREASE  OE  POPULA  TION. 


231 


AREA  INHABITED  IN 
1880. 

TOTAL  POPULATION^  50,155,783 


spectively,  inhabited  by  a  population  of  more  than  one 
person  to  the  square  mile.  These  two  maps  show  at  a 
glance  the  tremendous  stride  of  the  country,  in  less  than 
a  century,  far  more  forcibly  than  could  be  done  by  any 
amount  of   verbal  description.      It  will   take  the  teacher 


232 


THE  ECLECTIC  HISTOR  V. 


but  a  few  moments  to  shade  his  base-map  after  these 
copies,  and  the  children  should  be  required  to  copy 
and  compare  the  two  maps. 

To  show  how  the  base-map  should  be  used  for  dis- 
playing the  distribution  of  the  agricultural  and  mineral 
products  of  the  country,  let  us  take  the  corn  crop,  for 
example.  The  statistics  of  the  United  States  Census 
Report  for  1880  give  the  total  corn  product  of  the 
United  States  at  1,754,591,676  bushels.  Of  this 
amount,  eight  states  produced  about  72  per  cent,  as 
follows : 

CORN. 

Total  Production,    U.   S.    Census  1880,   1,754,591,676  Bushels. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

PKODICTION  IN  BUSHELS. 

I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

Illinois    .    . 
Iowa  .     .     . 
Missouri 
Indiana  .    . 
Ohio  .    .    . 
Kansas  .    . 
Kentucky    . 
Nebraska    .    . 

325,792,481 
275,014,247 
202,414,413 
115,482,300 
111,877,124 
105,729,325 
72,852,263 

65,450,135 

72  Per  Cent. 

1,274,612,288 

Now  shade  the  states  on  your  base-map,  graduating 
the  shading  roughly  to  the  production,  as  in  the  ac- 
companying map  (page  233),  and  what  do  we  see?  The 
great  corn-belt  of  the  United  States  at  once  starts  forth 
and  impresses  itself  on  the  mind  as  perhaps  it  never 
has  done  before ;   and  we  see,   also,   by  a  glance  at  the 


TEACHING  STATISTICS. 


233 


E.  M— 20. 


234 


THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 


map,  that  the  heart  of  this  belt  is  the  heart  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley. 

With  a  very  little  expenditure  of  time  or  trouble,  the 
teacher  can  show  in  a  like  manner  the  distribution  of 
the  other  leading  products.  For  the  convenience  of 
teachers  the  statistics  of  a  number  of  products  are  pre- 
sented below. 

The  maps  of  this  series  should  be  reproduced  by  the 
pupils,  each  one  marked  appropriately  "Wheat," 
"Corn,"  etc.,  and  preserved  for  reference.  If  it  is 
thought  desirable,  pupils  can  be  supplied  with  the  signal 
service  weather  maps  of  the  United  States.  These  cost 
only  fifteen  to  twenty  cents  a  dozen,  are  easily  procured, 
and  answer  the  purpose  capitally.  They  will  save  the 
pupils  the  labor  and  time  of  drawing  a  complete  map  of 
the   United  States  for  each  product  displayed. 

WHEAT. 

Total  Production,    U.  S.  Census  1880,  459,483,137  Bushels. 


RANK. 

LEADING  STATES. 

PRODUCTION    IN  BUSHELS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

Illinois    .    . 
Indiana  .    . 
Ohio  .    .    . 
Michigan    . 
Minnesota 
Iowa  .    .    . 
California  .    . 
Missouri     .    . 
Wisconsin  . 

51,110,502 
47,284,853 
46,014,869 

35.532,543 
34,601,030 

31.154,205 

29,017,707 

24,966,627 

24,884,689 

70  Per  Cent. 

324,567,025 

AGRICUL  TURAL  ST  A  TISTICS. 


235 


OATS. 
Total  Production,    U.  S.   Census  1880,  407,858,999  BusJtels. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

PRODUCTION  IN   BUSHELS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

Illinois 

63,189,200 
•          50,610,591 
37.575.506 
33,841,439 
32,905,320 
28,664,505 
23,382,158 
20,670,958 

Iowa  .... 

New  York  .    . 
Pennsylvania 
Wisconsin  .    . 
Ohio   .... 

Minnesota  .    . 
Missouri      .    . 

71  Per  Cent. 

• 

290,839,677 

BARLEY. 


Total  Production,    U.  S.    Census  1880,  43,997,495  Bushels. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

California  .... 
New  York  .    .    . 
Wisconsin .     .     . 

Iowa 

Minnesota .    .    . 
Nebraska    .    .    . 

Ohio 

Illinois    .... 

12,463,561 
7,792,062 
5,043,118 
4,022,588 
2,972,965 

1,744,686 
1,707,129 
1,229,523 

84  Per  Cent. 

36,975,632 

236 


THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 


RYE. 


Total  Production,    U.  S.   Census  1880,   19,831,595  Bushels. 


RANK. 

LEADING   STATES. 

PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

Pennsylvania 
Illinois    .    .    . 
New  York  .    . 
Wisconsin  .    . 

Iowa 

New  Jersey    .    . 
Kentucky  .    . 
Missouri     .    .     . 

3,683,621 

3.121,785 

2,634,690 

2,298,513 

1,518,605 

949,064 

668,050 

535.426 

78  Per  Cent. 

15,409,754 

RICE. 

Total  Production    U.  S.   Census  1880. 


RANK. 

ONLY    STATES    PRODUCING. 

PRODUCTION  IN  POUNDS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

South  Carolina 
Georgia  .    .    . 
Louisiana  .    . 
North  Carolina 
Mississippi 
Florida  . 

52,077,515 
25,369,687 

23,188,311 

5,609,191 

1,718,951 

1,294,677 

810,889 

62,152 

Alabama    .    .    . 
Texas      .    .    . 

Total  in  U.  S.    .    . 

110,131,373 

AGRICULTURAL  STATISTICS. 


237 


BUCKWHEAT. 

Total  Production,    U.   S.   Census  1880,   11,817,327  Bushels. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

! 

PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS. 

I 

2 

3 

1 

New  York  .... 
Pennsylvania     .    . 
New  Jersey     .    .    . 

4,461,200 

3-593-326 

466,414 

72  Per  Cent. 

8,520,940 

COTTON. 

Total  Production,    U.   S.    Census  1880,  5,755,359  Bales. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

PRODUCTION    IN    BALES. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

Mississippi .    . 
Georo'ia  . 

963,111 

814.441 
805,284 

699-654 
608,256 
522,548 
508,569 

389.598 
330,621 

Texas     .    .    . 

Alabama    .    . 
Arkansas    .    . 
South  Carolina 
Louisiana   .     . 
North  Carolina  . 
Tennessee  .    . 

98  Per  Cent. 

5,642,082 

HEMP. 

Total  Production,    U.  S.   Census  1880,  5,025   Tons. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATE. 

PRODUCTION    IN    TONS. 

I 

Kentucky,  91  Per  Ct. 

4.583 

238 


THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 


SUGAR    AND    MOLASSES. 

Cane. 

Total  Production,    U.   S.    Census  1880. 


RANK. 

ONLY    STATES. 

HOGSHEADS    OF 
SUGAR. 

GALLONS    OF    MO- 
LASSES. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 

Louisiana  .    . 
Texas     .    .    . 
Florida  .    .    . 
Georgia  .... 

171,706 

4,951 
1,273 

601 

229 

94 
18 

11,696,248 

810,605 

1,029,868 

1,565,784 

138,944 

795.199 
536,625 

South  Carolina 
Alabama    .    . 
Mississippi      . 

Total,  United  States, 

178,872 

16,573.273 

SorgJiuni. 

Total  Production,  U.  S.   Census  1880:  Sugar,  12792  Lbs;  Jlfolasses,  28,444,202   Galls. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

POUNDS  OF  SUGAR. 

J 

GALLONS    OF    MO- 
L.\SSES. 

I 

Missouri      .... 

300 

4,129,595 

2 

Tennessee 

265 

3,776,212 

3 

Kentucky  .    . 

554 

2,962,965 

4 

Illinois    .... 

1,801 

2,265,993 

5 

Iowa  .... 

1,031 

2,064,020 

6 

Indiana  .... 

1,141 

I.74I.853 

7 

Kansas  .    .    . 

805 

1,429,476 

8 

Ohio  .... 

270 

1,229,852 

6,167 

19,599,966 

A  GRIC  UL  TURAL  ST  A  TIS  TICS. 


239 


Maple. 

Total  Production  U.  S.  Census  1880:  Sugar,  36,576,061  Lbs.;  Molasses,  1,796,048  Galls. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

POUNDS  OF  SUGAR. 

GALLONS    OF    MO- 
LASSES. 

I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

Vermont     .... 
'New  York  .... 
Michigan    .... 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania     .    . 
New  Hampshire    . 

11,261,077 
10,693,619 

3.423.149 
2,895,782 

2,866,010 
2,731.945 

128,091 
266,390 
131,990 

495.839 
140,667 

79,712 

33.871.582 

1,242,689 

TOBACCO. 

Total  Production    U.   S.    Census  1880,  472,661,157  Pounds. 


RANK. 

.      LEADING   STATES. 

PRODUCTION  IN   POUNDS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 

Kentucky  .    . 
Virginia  .    .    . 

171,120,784 
79,988,868 
36,943,272 

34,735.235 
29,365,052 

26,986,213 

26,082,147 

14,044.652 

12,015,657 

10,608,423 

Pennsylvania 
Ohio   .... 
Tennessee  .    . 
North  Carolina 
Maryland  .    .    . 
Connecticut   .    . 
Missouri      .    . 
Wisconsin  .    .     . 

93  Per  Cent. 

441,890,303 

240 


THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 


FARM   PRODUCTS. 
Total  Production,    U.   S.   Census  1880:    Value,  $2,212,540,927. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

ESTIMATED  VALUE  OF 
ALL  FARM  PRODUCTIONS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

Illinois    .... 

^203,980,137 
178,025,695 
156,777,152 
136,103,473 
129,760,476 
114,707,082 
95,912,660 
91,159,858 

New  York  .    . 
Ohio  .... 

• 

Iowa   .... 
Pennsylvania     . 
Indiana  .    .    . 

Missouri     .    .    . 
Michigan    .    . 

50  Per  Cent. 

^1,106,426,533 

COAL. 

Total  Production,    U.  S.   Census  1880,  71,067,576   Tons. 


RANK. 

LEADING   STATES. 

TONS    OF   2,OQO    POUNDS. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

T>           1        •     f  Anthracite 
Pennsylvania  i   ^  • , 

•^              ( Bituminous 

Illinois 

Ohio 

28,640,819 
18,425,163 

6,115,377 
6,008,595 
2,228,917 

1,839.845 
1,461,116 

1,454,327 
946,288 

Maryland 

West  Virginia 

Iowa 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

94  Per  Cent. 

67.120,447 

IMPORTANT  MINERALS. 


241 


PIG    IRON. 

Total  Production,    U.  S.   Geological  Survey  1882,  5,178,122   Tons. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

NET    TONS. 

I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

Pennsylvania 
Ohio    .    .    . 
New  York  ,    . 
Illinois    .    . 
Michigan    . 
New  Jersey 
Tennessee  . 
Missouri 
Alabama    . 

2,449,256 
698,900 
416,156 
360,407 
210,195 
176,805 
137,602 
113,644 
112,765 

90  Per  Cent. 

4.675.730 

GOLD. 

Total  Production,    U.  S.   Census  1880:    Value,  $33,379,663. 


RANK. 

LEADING    ST.ATES  AND   TER. 

VALUE    OF    PRODUCT. 

I 

California  .... 

$17,150,941 

2 

Nevada  

4,888,242 

3 

Dakota 

3.305.843 

4 

Colorado    .... 

2,699,898 

5 

Montana     .... 

1,805,767 

6 

Idaho      

1.479.653 

7 

Oregon  

1,097,701 

97  Per  Cent. 

$32,428,045 

Other  gold  producing  States  and  Territories,  in  the  order  of  their 
productions,  are :  (8)  Utah.  (9)  Arizona.  (10)  Washington.  (11) 
North  Carolina.  (12)  Georgia.  (13)  New  Mexico.  (14)  Wyoming. 
(15)  South  Carolina.  (16)  New  Hampshire.  (17)  Virginia.  (18) 
Alaska.     (19)  Maine.     (20)  Tennessee.     (21)  Alabama. 

E.  M.— 21. 


242 


THE  ECLECTIC  HISTORY. 


SILVER. 

Toial  Production,    U.   S.    Census  1880:    Value,  $41,110,957. 


RANK. 

LEADING  STATES. 

VALUE    OF    PRODUCT. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

Colorado    .... 

Nevada  

Utah 

Montana    .... 
Arizona  (estimated) 
California  .... 

$16,549,274 
12,430,667 
4.743.087 
2,905,068 
2,325,825 
1,150,887 

97  Per  Cent. 

$40,104,808 

Other  silver  producing  States  and  Territories,  in  the  order  of 
their  productions  are:  (7)  Idaho.  (8)  New  Mexico.  (9)  Dakota. 
(10)  Oregon.  (11)  Michigan.  (12)  New  Hampshire.  (13)  Maine. 
(14)  Washington.  (15)  Georgia.  (16)  North  Carohna.  (17)  South 
Carolina.     (18)  Alaska. 


MANUFACTURES. 
Total  Production,    U.   S.   Census  1880:    Value,  $5,341,838,890. 


RANK. 

LEADING    STATES. 

VALUE    OF    PRODUCT. 

I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

New  York  .    .    . 
Pennsylvania     . 
Massachusetts    . 
Illinois    .... 

• 

$1,080,696,596 

744,818,445 
631,135,284 

414,864,673 

348,298,390 

254,380,236 

185,697,211 

165,386,205. 

Ohio    .    . 

New  Jersey    .    . 
Connecticut    . 
Missouri .    .    . 

71  Per  Cent. 

$3,825,277,040 

POLITICAL  HISTORY.  243 


Political  History. 


Professor  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  of  Cornell  University, 
says:  **I  teach  American  history  not  so  much  to  make 
historians  as  to  make  citizens  and  good  leaders  for  the 
state  and  nation."  This  should  certainly  be  the  aim, 
also,  of  every  teacher  in  our  common  schools.  Every 
boy  in  America  should  learn  to  appreciate  thoroughly 
American  political  institutions,  and  should  be  so  trained 
that  when  he  grows  to  manhood  he  will  be  able  to  use 
his  franchise  intelligently. 

If  time  admits  of  a  brief  course  in  political  history, 
the  teacher  should  organize  the  older  boys  into  a  class 
for  this  purpose.  The  course  need  not  occupy  much 
time,  and  will  certainly  be  most  valuable.  It  should 
consist  largely  in  oral  instruction  on  American  institu- 
tions, and  should  treat  briefly  the  following  three 
points : 

1.  Our  form  of  government  compared  with  others 
now  existing. 

2.  The  origin  and  growth  of  our  political  institutions. 

3.  The  organization  and  methods  of  local,  state,  and 
national  government. 

The  teacher  should  describe,  in  a  general  way,  the 
various  forms  of  government  of  the  great  European 
powers,  and  compare  them  with  our  own,  showing 
where  they  are  alike,  where  similar,  and  where  and 
how  they  are  different.  Particular  attention  should  be 
devoted  to  the  English  government,  on  which  our  own 
is  so  largely  based. 

The  origin  and  gradual  growth  of  our  political  institu- 
tions should  next  be  traced.  The  different  forms  of 
colonial  government  should  receive  brief  treatment;  the 


244  THE  ECLECTIC  HISTOR  Y. 

causes  of  the  Revolution  should  be  reviewed  from  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  (page  viii  of  the  Appen- 
dix) ;  and  the  changes  in  local  government  brought 
about  by  the  Revolution  noted.  This  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  short  account  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
various  political  parties  since  the  Revolution,  with  an 
outline  of  their  principles. 

On  taking  up  the  subject  of  modern  political  institu- 
tions, commence  with  instruction  in  regard  to  the  minor 
political  divisions,  first  of  your  own  state,  and  then  of 
the  United  States  generally.  It  will  probably  prove  of 
interest  to  pupils  to  find  that  there  are  three  distinct 
classes  of  these  minor  divisions  which  differ  essentially 
in  organization;  namely,  the  **town"  system,  which  is 
confined  to  New  England;  the  ''county"  system,  which 
exists  in  all  the  southern  states — except  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina — and  in  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Nevada, 
Oregon,  and  California;  and  the  ''compromise,"  or 
combined  county  and  township  system,  which  exists  in 
the  remaining  states  of  the  Union.  The  compromise 
system  has  two  forms,  very  nearly  alike,  one  of  which 
is  seen  in  New  York  and  the  other  in  Pennsylvania. 
The  states  adopting  this  system  are  cjuite  evenly  divided 
between  the  two  forms. 

Mr.  S.  A.  Galpin,  writing  of  these  minor  divisions  for 
"Walker's  Statistical  Atlas  of  the  United  States,"  says: 
"The  two  which  differ  most  widely  from  each  other, 
not  only  in  their  general  characteristics,  but  also  in  their 
location  throughout  the  country,  are  the  '  town  '  system 
of  New  England  and  the  '  county '  system  of  the  south. 
Both  of  these  were  firmly  rooted  in  their  respective  sec- 
tions  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
passed    through   the    successive   transfers   of  sovereignty 


POLITICAL  HISTORY.  245 

growing  out  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution  without  any 
material  change."* 

That  system  which  prevails  in  your  own  state  should 
receive  full  treatment ;  that  is,  the  class  should  be  in- 
structed as  to  its  minutest  details.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  give  a  simple  outline  of  the  other  systems,  showing 
their  chief  points  of  difference  from  your  own. 

Next  in  order  comes  the  state  government,  which 
should  also  receive  full  treatment,  including  a  study,  or 
at  least  a  reading,    of  the  state  constitution. 

Finally,  the  class  should  carefully  study  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  which  is  given  on  pages  xi-xx 
of  the  Eclectic  History,  and  should  be  examined  thor- 
oughly as  to  their  knowledge  of  the  subject  by  means 
of  the   "Questions"  on  the  two  succeeding  pages. 


*  For  full  and  authentic  information  on  these  systems,  the 
teacher  is  referred  to  the  very  interesting  article,  "  The  Minor 
Political  Divisions  of  the  United  States,"  from  which  the  above  is 
an  extract. 


PHYSIOLOGY 


XVIII. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

THE  importance  of  Physiology  as  a  study  in  the 
common  schools  has  grown,  year  by  year,  until  it 
has  attained  its  proper  place,  and  is  now  considered  a 
necessary  part  of  education.  It  is  only  strange  that  it 
has  not  always  been  so  considered ;  for  health  is  recog- 
nized by  all  as  the  prime  requisite  for  a  happy  life,  and 
we  should  therefore  feel  a  moral  obligation  to  instruct 
the  young  in  the  fundamental  laws  of  health,  and  to 
give  them  such  a  knowledge  of  the  human  body  that 
they  can  not  violate  any  of  these  laws  through  igno- 
rance. 

The  study  of  the  text-book  on  physiology  should  be 
deferred  until  the  pupils  are  old  enough  to  understand 
and  appreciate  it;  but  there  are  certain  laws  of  health 
that  should  be  taught  to  the  entire  school,  and  certain 
requisites  demanded  by  those  laws  should  receive  the 
unremitting  attention  of  every  teacher.  It  is  impossible 
to  give  a  complete  list  of  all  the  things  that  should  and 
all  that  should  not  be  done,  but  we  mention  a  few  of 
the  most  important  matters  which  should  receive  atten- 
tion. 

"Cleanliness  is  indeed  next  to  godliness,"  and  it  is 
the  teacher's  duty,  not  only  to  the  individual,  but  to  the 
school  at  large,  to  insist  on  cleanliness  of  person  on  the 
part  of  each  member  of  the  school. 

(249) 


250  THE  ECLECTIC  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Position. — When  pupils  are  reciting,  see  that  they 
stand  squarely  on  both  feet,  with  the  heels  together, 
shoulders  back,  and  head  erect.  When  at  their  desks, 
see  that  pupils  do  not  lounge  or  sit  in  a  cramped  posi- 
tion. It  is  not  necessary  to  act  the  martinet  in  this 
matter,  but  a  little  care  will  probably  save  many  little 
children  from  strained  eyes,  weak  lungs,  round  shoul- 
ders,  and  ungraceful  habits. 

Voice  and  Lungs. — When  children  are  reading  or 
speaking,  whether  in  ordinary  recitation  or  in  vocal  ex- 
ercises, individually  or  in  concert,  see  that  they  use 
their  voices  and  lungs  properly.  The  voice  should  be 
pitched  in  its  natural  conversational  key,  neither  higher 
nor  lower.  The  tones  of  the  voice  should  always  be 
distinct  and  resonant,  but  never  loud.  The  manner  of 
breathing  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  in  vocal  drills 
especially.  Two  points  should  be  insisted  upon :  first, 
the  breathing  should  be  carried  on  as  much  as  possible 
through  the  nose,  and  not  through  the  mouth;  second, 
the  inspiration  should  distend  the  abdomen  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  chest.  TJie  shouldci'S  and  upper  paH  of  the 
chest  should  never  be  raised^  in  taking  breathy  under  any 
circumstances. 

The  celebrated  Dr.  Lennox  Browne,  of  England,  and 
Professor  Emil  Behnke,  in  their  joint  work,  "Voice, 
Song,  and  Speech,"  lay  much  stress  upon  the  impor- 
tance of  correct  breathing.  We  quote  a  few  passages 
from  their  book  which  bear  directly  on  school  training 
in  this  particular : 

"The  criterion  of  correct  inspiration  is  an  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  abdomen  and  the  lower  part  of  the  chest. 
Whoever  draws  in  the  abdomen  and  raises  the  upper 
part  of  the  chest  breathes  wrongly. 


VOICE  AND  LUNGS.  25  I 

"While  we  urge  the  importance  of  nose  breathing  for 
full  inflation,  which  is  an  act  to  be  performed  slowly, 
steadily,  and  gradually,  we  do  not  deny  that  for  rapid 
half-breaths  occasionally  demanded  by  singer  or  speaker, 
inspiration  by  the  mouth  is  not  only  justifiable  but  un- 
avoidable. Habitual  practice,  however,  in  mouth-breath- 
ing can  only  lead  to  great  discomfort,  if  not  to  actual 
and  direct  mischief  of  the  throat,  windpipe,  and  chest ; 
and  such  is  very  probable  to  result  in  the  foggy  and 
and  cold-damp  weather  of  spring,  autumn,  and  winter. 
.  .  .  It  may  be  added  that  even  asthma  and  other 
serious  chest  diseases  are  induced  from  this  cause,  and 
that  purity  and  resonance  of  all  vocal  tone  is  diminished 
or  destroyed  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  closure  [of 
the  nasal  passages]. 

*'It  is  not  out  of  place  here  to  mention  that  respira- 
tory exercises,  and  subsequently  lessons  in  reading,  re- 
citing, and  singing  are  oftentimes  of  the  greatest  use  in 
strengthening  a  weak  chest ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  in  arresting  consumption." 

Temperature  and  Light. — In  regard  to  temperature 
and  light,  the  teacher  is  largely  governed  by  circum- 
stances beyond  his  control,  but  he  can  always  make  the 
best  possible  out  of  those  circumstances.  The  school 
room  ought  to  be  thoroughly  well  ventilated  and  well 
lighted,  free  from  drafts,  and  protected  by  proper  cur- 
tains or  shades  from  the  direct  glare  of  the  sun.  The 
heating  apparatus  should  be  such  as  to  preserve  a  proper 
and  uniform  temperature.  Every  school  room  should 
be  supplied  with  a  thermometer,  which  should  be  hung 
in  such  a  place  as  will  best  show  the  average  tempera- 
ture of  the  room.  It  should  not  be  huncf  more  than 
four  feet  above  the  floor,  near  a  window  or  heater,  nor 


252  THE  ECLECTIC  PHYSIOL OGV. 

on  an  outside  wall.  A  thermometer  properly  hung 
should  not  be  allowed  to  vary  much  from  70°  Fahrenheit. 

If  all  these  conditions  can  not  be  obtained,  do  the 
best  you  can  to  approximate  to  them.  Do  not  allow  a 
child  to  sit  too  near  a  register  or  a  hot  stove,  nor  in  a 
draft.  Neither  should  a  child  be  allowed  to  work  with 
the  direct  sunlight  falling  upon  the  paper  before  him, 
and  dazzling  his  eyes. 

Wet  Clothing. — Do  not  allow  children  to  sit  in 
school  with  wet  feet  or  clothing.  If  they  live  too  far 
away  to  be  sent  home  to  change  their  garments,  they 
should  at  least  be  compelled  to  dry  both  feet  and  cloth- 
ing thoroughly  before  taking  their  seats.  If  this  is  im- 
possible, it  is  far  better  to  send  them  home  for  the  entire 
day  than  to  have  them  run  the  risk  of   serious  illness. 

Exercise  in  the  open  air  and  sunlight  is  a  necessity 
to  health,  and  the  younger  children  especially  need 
abundance  of  time  for  this  kind  of  relaxation.  The 
teacher,  however,  should  regulate  the  exercises,  if  pos- 
sible, and  warn  the  children  of  the  dangers  of  violent 
exercise,  both  from  over-exertion  and  from  over-heating, 
and  then  suddenly  cooling,   the  body. 

The  entire  school  should  be  exercised  in  light  gym- 
nastics at  least  once  each  day,  and  oftener  if  possible. 
Simple  apparatus,  such  as  wooden  dumb-bells,  rods,  and 
rings,  are  desirable,    but  not  essential. 

If  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  employ  a  few  minutes  each 
day  with  military  drill.  The  excellent  effect  of  this 
species  of  drill  is  well  seen  in  the  superior  carriage  of 
soldiers  and  of  boys  who  attend  military  schools.  A 
very  little  study  of  any  manual  of  tactics  will  give  the 
teacher  all  the  information  necessary  to  conduct  this 
drill,  and  the  results  will  be  found  well  worth  the  time 


THE  TEA  CHER'S  PREPARA  TION.  253 

and  trouble  bestowed.  When  the  weather  will  permit, 
the  drill  should  be  conducted  in  the  open  air  on  the 
playground. 


The  Eclectic  Physiology. 

Physiology  is  usually  a  very  interesting  subject  to 
pupils,  and  it  is  not  a  difficult  subject  to  teach  thor- 
oughly if  it  is  properly  treated. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation  for  conducting  his  class 
in  their  study  is  of  supreme  importance.  The  teacher 
needs  to  be  fai)iiliar  with  the  subject-matter  of  the 
science,  and  his  knowledge  must  be  fresh ;  hence,  he 
should  study  the  subject  as  thoroughly  as  circumstances 
will  permit,  and  not  confine  himself  to  the  text-book 
used  by  the  class ;  and  if  he  has  made  a  thorough  study 
of  the  subject  in  times  past,  but  is  somewhat  "rusty" 
in  his  knowledge,  he  should  review  the  entire  subject 
thoroughly  before  entering  upon  class-work. 

In  addition  to  this  general  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
it  is  of  great  importance  that  the  teacher  should  have  a 
special  knowledge  of  the  text-book  in  use.  He  must 
understand  the  aims  of  the  author,  the  scope  of  the 
work,  and  the  plan  of  arrangement,  including  the  order 
of  topics  and  the  dependence  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
treatise.  Moreover,  each  day's  lesson  in  turn  should 
receive  the  teacher's  careful  attention  in  advance  of  at- 
tempting to  conduct  the  recitation. 

The  Purpose  of  the  study  of  physiology  is  two-fold: 

1.  To  give  the  pupils  valuable  information. 

2.  To  discipline  the  minds  of  the  pupils  by  encourag- 
ing the  habit  of  sound  and  systematic  thought. 

The  value  of  the  knowledge  gained  depends  upon  the 


254  THE  E  CLE  C  TIC  PHYSIOL  O  G  Y. 

impressiveness  of  the  lessons  in  hygiene,  whereby  the 
pupils  should  learn  to  take  proper  care  of  their  bodies, 
that  they  may  most  effectively  maintain  good  health  and 
avoid  disease  and  weakness. 

The  disciplinary  value  of  physiology  depends  upon  an 
intelligent  and  systematic  method  of  instruction  upon 
the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  a  corresponding  method  of 
study  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

The  Plan  of  instruction  should  conform  to  the  two 
purposes  just  stated.  The  hygienic  features  of  the 
science  are  of  paramount  importance,  and  therefore 
demand  the  greatest  share  of  attention.  Only  so  much 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  need  be  learned  as  will 
form  a  basis  for  intelligent  instruction  in  hygiene.  In 
other  words,  the  pupils  are  not  to  be  taught  as  if 
they  were  to  become  surgeons  and  physicians,  but  in 
such  manner  as  will  best  prepare  them  for  healthful, 
every-day  life. 

Errors  to  be  Avoided. — The  teacher  who  sees  clearly 
from  the  beginning  the  chief  importance  of  hygiene, 
will  be  likely  to  avoid  three  great  errors  that  are  quite 
common  with  teachers  of  physiology : 

1.  Giving  too  much  attention  to  the  details  of 
anatomy. 

2.  Making  too  little  practical  application  of  the 
science  to  the  common  affairs  of  life. 

3.  Teaching  facts  in  a  disconnected  and  unrelated 
manner. 

Aids. — In  the  study  of  the  human  body,  the  pupil 
needs  to  be  thoroughly  impressed  with  the  fact  that  he 
is  studying  about  Jiis  own  body, — not  some  body  repre- 
sented in  the  pictures  of  his  book,  or  on  the  charts,  but 
his  own,  living,   throbbing  body.      To  secure  this  great 


AIDS.  255 

end,  the  teacher  must  constantly  require  the  pupils  to 
refer  to  their  own  vital  processes.  They  can  examine 
the  skin,  can  notice  the  breathing,  can  feel  the  pulse 
and  heart  beat,  can  examine  the  eye,  and  can  feel  the 
bones  and  muscles.  They  know,  also,  what  hunger  and 
thirst  are,  what  food  is,  what  pain  and  sickness  are, 
what  each  special  sense  gives  them.  Let  the  children 
commence  work  by  considering  such  facts  concerning 
their  own  bodies,  and  their  own  vital  processes ;  then 
the  lessons  of  hygiene  which  they  learn  will  come  very 
close  to  them,  and  they  will  be  likely  to  apply  such 
lessons  to  their  actual  experiences. 

To  aid  in  creating  an  interest  in  the  mechanism  of 
the  human  body,  and  in  giving  a  clear  idea  of  it,  the 
teacher  should  use  good  charts,  from  which  the  pupils 
may  more  readily  see  the  structure  and  relation  of  the 
parts.  Plain,  simple  charts  are  valuable  aids,  because, 
on  the  one  hand,  we  can  not  perform  dissection  in  the 
school  room  ;  while,  on  the  other,  purely  verbal  descrip- 
tions are  usually  feeble  as  compared  with  pictorial  rep- 
resentations. 

In  the  absence  of  charts,  the  teacher,  by  some  effort 
and  practice,  may  draw  many  figures  upon  the  black- 
board, illustrating  the  parts  of  the  body.  The  pupils 
will  usually  be  much  interested  in  making  such  draw- 
ings for  themselves. 

In  addition  to  what  has  already  been  suggested,  the 
teacher  may  obtain  interesting  material  from  slaughtered 
animals  with  which  to  show  the  character  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  similar  parts  of  the  human  body.  A  hog's 
heart  resembles  the  human  heart  very  closely.  By  cut- 
ting open  the  hog's  heart,  the  structure  and  arrangement 
of  the  human  heart  may  be  studied  objectively.      In  like 


256 


THE  ECLECTIC  PHYSIOLOGY. 


manner,  the  teacher  may  show  the  class  the  structure 
of  the  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  intestines,  bones,  joints, 
eyes,  etc.,  etc.  The  use  of  such  material  for  illustra- 
tion intensifies  the  interest  and  impresses  the  mind  far 
more  forcibly  than  either  verbal  or  pictorial  representa- 
tions. 

Time  of  Recitations. — It  would  be  well  for  the  class 
in  physiology  to  recite  daily.  A  short  lesson  each  day 
is  to  be  preferred  to  longer  lessons  on  alternate  days. 
In  a  mixed  school,  in  which  the  teacher  has  many 
classes  each  day,  the  lesson  in  physiology  need  not 
exceed  twenty-five  minutes  in  length. 

Proper  Division  into  Lessons. — A  class  of  ordinary 
pupils  can  complete  the  Eclectic  Physiology  in  one 
school  year  of  five  or  six  months.  A  strong  class 
might  possibly  complete  the  work  in  sixteen  weeks  or 
less.  Nevertheless,  it  is  urged  that  the  teacher  aim  at 
thoroughness  rather  than  rapidity. 

Seventy-five  lessons  may  be  considered  the  average 
number  for  a  strong  class,  and  certainly  no  fewer  than 
fifty  lessons  should  be  attempted  under  any  circum- 
stances. If  fifty  lessons  are  all  that  can  possibly  be 
given  the  subject,  the  following  division  may  prove  of 
value  to  the  teacher  in  assigning  lessons: 


Introduction 

Bones 

Muscles 

Skin 

Food 

Digestion 

Circulation 

Respiration 

Excretion 

General  Nervous  System 


Two    lessons. 

Three  lessons. 

Three  lessons. 

Two    lessons. 

Two    lessons. 

Three  lessons. 

Five    lessons. 

Five    lessons. 

Two    lessons. 

Five    lessons. 


SUBDIVISION  OF  TOPICS.  257 


Touch,  Taste,  and  Smell 

Sight      .... 

Hearing 

Sanitary  Science    . 

Effects  of  Alcohol 

Reviews  and  Examinations, 

Total,        F\fty  Lesso?is. 


Three  lessons. 
Three  lessons. 
Three  lessons. 
Two  lessofts. 
Two  lessojts. 
Five    lessons. 


If  seventy-five  lessons  can  be  given,  the  teacher 
should  divide  the  subjects  proportionately  to  the  above 
list. 

The  teacher  should  decide  before  commencing  work 
exactly  how  many  lessons  he  proposes  to  give,  make 
out  his  schedule  accordingly,  and  then  hold  firmly  to 
his  plan.  If  he  adopt  this  method,  he  will  find  that  the 
pupils  will  complete  the  subject  within  the  allotted  time, 
and  that,  at  the  same  time,  the  topics  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  text  will  receive  as  full  consideration  as  those 
treated  in  the  beginning.  If  this  method  be  not 
adopted,  there  is  danger  of  dwelling  too  long  on  certain 
portions  of  the  text  at  the  expense  of  others. 

Subdivisions  of  Topics. — After  the  teacher  has  ex- 
amined the  text-book  carefully,  and  has  decided  both  as 
to  the  length  of  time  that  is  to  be  given  to  the  study, 
and  as  to  the  number  of  lessons  into  which  the  subject 
is  to  be  divided,  as  above  suggested,  he  must  next  de- 
termine definitely  the  exact  limits  of  the  subdivisions  to 
be  made,  else  the  lesssons  designed  to  treat  of  any  divi- 
sion of  the  text  may  not  cover  the  ground  they  are 
intended  to  include.  To  illustrate  this  point,  the  five 
lessons  assigned  for  the  study  of  circulation  must  divide 
that  subject  properly.  It  is  supposed  that  the  class  has 
just  studied  the  subject  of  food  and  the  process  of 
digestion.      As   the   food   makes    blood,    it   would   seem 

E.  M.— 22. 


258  THE  ECLECTIC  PHYSIOL  OGY. 

proper  that  the  class  should  take  for  its  first  lesson  in 
circulation  the  subject  of  blood.  Certain  facts  are  to  be 
learned  about  the  blood :  for  example,  what  the  blood 
is,  its  importance,  its  uses,  its  composition,  etc.  To 
learn  these  facts,  the  pupils  must  study  articles  66  to  71 
inclusive,  and  must  read  carefully  notes  i,  2,  and  3. 
The  second  lesson  should  include  tJie  organs  of  chxula- 
tion.  These  are  treated  of  in  articles  72  to  'jj  inclusive, 
and  notes  4  and  5.  The  third  lesson  should  trace  the 
circulation,  as  taught  in  articles  78  to  81  inclusive,  and 
note  6.  The  fourth  lesson  should  include  the  remaining 
articles  of  the  chapter,  and  the  teacher  should  pay  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  hygiene  of  circulation.  The 
fifth  lesson  should  review  and   unify  the  whole  chapter. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  teacher  should  divide  each 
chapter  of  the  book  into  lessons  of  appropriate  length, 
taking  carefully  into  consideration  both  the  time  allotted 
to  a  recitation  and  the  total  number  of  lessons  that  must 
include  the  entire  subject. 

Advantages  of  System. — Let  us  repeat  that  all  this 
planning  should  be  closely  studied  by  the  teacher  before 
commencing  work  at  all.  If  the  suggestion  be  heeded, 
the  teacher  will  find  that  this  definite  planning  of  work 
will  materially  add  to  the  efficiency  of  his  instruction  in 
physiology.  It  aims  to  accomplish  the  following  ex- 
cellent results : 

1.  The  orderly  presentation  of  matter. 

2.  The  due  division  of  time  among  the  several  parts 
of  the  subject. 

3.  Systematic  and  intelligent  study  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils. 

4.  Topical  and  methodical  recitation  of  the  lessons 
thus  learned. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  SYSTEM.  259 

Lead  pupils  to  study  with  the  idea  of  orderly  arrange- 
ment of  topics  constantly  before  the  mind.  If  the 
teacher  requires  pupils  to  recite  in  an  orderly  manner, 
they  will  naturally  learn  to  prepare  their  work  in  that 
way. 

Bear  constantly  in  mind  that  the  two  important  aims 
in  the  study  of  physiology  are  to  have  the  pupils 
acquire  a  valuable  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  to 
train  the  mind  in  systematic  and  forcible  action.  Both 
of  these  aims  are  to  be  attained  most  readily  by  the 
classified  form  of  study  and  recitation. 

But  beware  of  bare  outlines.  The  danger  in  the  use 
of  outlines  in  class-work  is  that  the  teacher  may  use  the 
outline  merely  as  a  skeleton,  and  not  put  upon  it  the 
necessary  flesh  in  which  the  skeleton  should  be  im- 
bedded. Classification  learned  simply  as  such  is  of  very 
little  use,  and  teachers  should  guard  carefully  against 
teaching  in  this  way. 

On  the  Conduct  of  Recitations. — Let  us  suppose 
that  the  teacher  has  assigned  a  lesson  in  physiology,  and 
the  time  has  arrived  for  the  recitation.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  pupils  have  been  definitely  informed  as  to  what 
to  study,  and  that  they  know  what  is  to  be  the  plan  of 
recitation.  It  is  not  necessary,  therefore,  for  the  teacher 
to  ask  where  the  lesson  is,  and  to  proceed  to  ask  question 
after  question,  to  which  the  pupils  give  answers.  He 
may  direct  one  of  the  pupils  to  state  the  lesson,  and  to 
proceed  to  recite  the  first  portion  of  it.  At  a  suitable 
time  the  teacher  should  excuse  the  first  pupil,  and  ask 
another  to  continue  the  recitation.  Passing  from  one  to 
another  in  the  class,  the  lesson  is  soon  recited.  The 
omissions  made  by  those  pupils  who  have  recited  may 
now  be   supplied   by   other  pupils.      Criticisms   may   be 


26o  THE  ECLECTIC  PHYSIOLOGY, 

made  on  the  recitations  by  both  pupils  and  teacher. 
Questions  may  be  asked  to  still  farther  test  the  pupils 
in  their  understanding  of  the  matter  recited. 

Specimens  may  be  examined  illustrating  the  subject 
under  consideration.  Recitations  may  be  made  from  the 
charts,  in  which  case  the  pupils  point  out  the  represen- 
tation of  the  parts  described.  The  pupils  may  ask  ques- 
tions about  any  points  of  particular  interest  to  them,  or 
about  such  parts  as  they  do  not  well  understand.  The 
notes  which  refer  to  certain  parts  of  the  lesson  may  be 
read  aloud.  The  pupils  may  write  out  an  outline  of  the 
lesson  upon  the  blackboard. 

The  connection  between  the  present  lesson  and  the 
new  lesson  that  is  to  be  assigned,  may  be  stated  by  the 
teacher,  and  he  may  call  special  attention  to  important 
and  interesting  features  of  the  new  lesson.  Whatever 
will  tend  to  deepen  the  interest  of  the  pupils  in  the 
study  of  the  subject  should  be  done.  Encourage  the 
pupils  to  converse  and  to  ask  questions  about  the  sub- 
jects studied. 

To  illustrate  still  more  fully,  suppose  the  class  is  just 
beginning  the  subject  of  respiration,  and  that  the  lesson 
is  articles  85,  86,  and  87.  Here  are  certain  important 
points  to  be  brought  out  in  the  recitation :  The  constant 
demand  for  air  by  all  living  things.  The  air  must  enter 
the  blood  and  be  circulated, — no  other  want  is  more 
urgent.  How  plants  breathe.  How  fishes  get  air. 
How  the  higher  animals  breathe.  What  respiration  is. 
What  the  uses  of  the  air  are.  What  the  general  plan 
of  respiration  is.      How  the  air  enters  the  blood. 

The  ten  points  just  enumerated  cover  the  matter  in- 
cluded in  the  articles,  and  might  form  the  topics  for  the 
recitations  to  be  made  by  the  several  pupils  of  the  class. 


RECITATIONS.  26 1 

The  teacher  might  ask  such  questions  as  the  following 
to  test  any  member  of  the  class :  What  are  the  pur- 
poses of  respiration  ?  How  does  the  need  of  air  com- 
pare with  the  want  of  food  ?  How  do  trees  breathe  ? 
How  do  water  animals  breathe?  How  do  land  animals 
breathe?  How  do  we  breathe?  Why  do  all  living 
things  need  air? 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  the  class  is  to  recite  the  first 
lesson  of  Chapter  XIV,  —  "Sight."  The  topics  in  this 
lesson  would  include  the  matter  contained  in  articles 
I35»  1 36*  I37»  138.  The  chief  topics  are  as  follows: 
Sight,  what  it  is.  What  we  learn  from  the  sense  of 
sight.  The  eyes,  what  are  they?  Description  of  the 
eyes.  The  protecting  parts  of  the  eyes.  Tears,  what 
are  they  ?  Their  origin  and  purpose.  How  the  eye- 
balls are  supported.      How  they  are   moved. 

When  the  pupils  have  recited  these  topics,  the  teacher 
may  test  them  by  many  questions,  such  as  the  follow- 
ing: What  is  it  that  comes  into  the  eye  from  the 
objects  we  see  ?  What  do  we  learn  by  seeing  any 
thing?  Why  are  the  eyes  placed  as  they  are?  How 
do  the  orbits  protect  the  eyes?  Of  what  use  are  the 
brows  and  lashes  ?  What  glands  are  connected  with  the 
eyes?  Whence  do  the  tears  come?  How  are  the  eye- 
balls kept  clean  ?     How  do  we  turn  the  eyes  ? 

In  connection  with  this  lesson  and  the  one  that  fol- 
lows it,  the  teacher  should  dissect  an  eye  for  the  class, 
as  described  in  note  i.  Each  pupil  may  learn  much 
by  looking  at  the  eye  of  another  person,  and  by 
touching  and  examining  his  own  eye.  If  the  teacher 
can  secure  the  use  of  a  convex  lens,  he  may  perform 
many  interesting  experiments  with  it  that  will  show  the 
action  of  the  lens  of  the  eye. 


262  THE  ECLECTIC  PHYSIOLOGY. 

It  only  remains  to  say  that  while  physiology  is  usually 
a  very  interesting  study  to  children,  yet  no  subject  can 
be  made  very  interesting  to  a  class  by  a  teacher  who  is 
himself  devoid  of  interest  in  that  subject.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  more  real  interest  the  teacher  can  put  into 
the  work,  the  more  enthusiastic  will  his  class  be  in  the 
study  of  the  subject.  The  more  impressive  the  lessons 
of  hygiene  are,  the  more  valuable  will  the  information 
be  to  the  pupils. 


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